Blockchain Papers

Hang Zheng, Wenjie Li, Jiageng Chen

No abstract is available for this record.

Исламбек Рустамбеков

This paper examines the growing challenges of verifying and validating micro-credentials within increasingly fragmented educational ecosystems. As traditional educational pathways diversify into modular learning experiences, the need for reliable verification mechanisms becomes critical for workforce mobility and lifelong learning recognition. Through comparative and inductive analysis, this research identifies key vulnerabilities in current micro-credential systems and proposes a conceptual framework for a multi-layered validation infrastructure. The proposed approach integrates interoperable verification protocols, distributed ledger technologies, and reputation-based validation mechanisms to establish trust across educational institutions, employers, and learners. The framework addresses fundamental challenges including standardization gaps, informal learning validation, and credential falsification risks. While implementation barriers exist related to scalability and cross-cultural acceptance, the multi-faceted validation ecosystem outlined offers promising pathways toward a more flexible, secure recognition system for modular qualifications. The establishment of trusted microcredential ecosystems could significantly enhance labor market efficiency by enabling precise skill verification while democratizing access to recognized qualifications beyond traditional academic institutions.

Sixbert Sangwa, Emmanuel Ekosse, Isaac Museveni, Simeon Nsabiyumva

This study investigates how decentralized, industry-linked learning hubs can address Africa’s enduring higher education challenges of access, affordability, and employability. It proposes a scalable framework combining the African Leadership University (ALU)’s multi-city model with the Community Services Association (CSA) Rwanda’s district-based learning ecosystem. The study is guided by three research questions: RQ1: What systemic enablers support the diffusion of industry-linked university hubs in Africa? RQ2: What key barriers limit diffusion, and how do they vary across countries? RQ3: How can proven models (e.g., ALU, CSA) be adapted and costed for scale? (2)Methodology. A qualitative comparative analysis was conducted using 35 high-credibility secondary sources filtered via a PRISMA-adapted protocol from an initial 245 records (2010–2025). Four cases—ALU, CSA, Ashesi University, and UNICAF—were analyzed through the lenses of Diffusion of Innovation, Triple Helix, and Experiential Learning theory. Although the study relies exclusively on secondary sources, we applied light-touch text-mining in MAXQDA: policy documents were tokenised, stop-words removed, and coded with an unsupervised LDA algorithm (k = 6) to surface latent themes that triaged sources for qualitative comparative analysis; no clustering or association-rule modelling was undertaken. Visual tools—including causal-loop diagrams, scorecards, and a Gantt-style scale-up roadmap—supported synthesis. (3) Findings. Five core enablers emerged: policy alignment, institutional autonomy, Triple Helix linkages, diversified finance, and contextualized curricula. Barriers included regulatory rigidity, funding fragility, governance gaps, and digital divides. The proposed Pan-African Learning Hub Framework blends ALU’s experiential pedagogy with CSA’s grassroots model, enabling vertical progression from district-level cooperatives to regional research hubs. A three-year scale-up plan (USD 400–4,000 per student/year) suggests viability under flexible policy conditions. (4) Research Limitations / Implications. Secondary-data reliance constrains causal attribution and excludes francophone/North African contexts. Field validation and financial modeling are recommended for future work. (5) Practical Implications. Policymakers and institutions can use this framework to pilot scalable, employment-linked hubs without constructing new campuses. (6) Originality / Value. This is the first study to align Africa-wide policy ambitions with operational design and costing of university-linked hub models.

Pongsathorn Utsahawattanasuk, Srijidtra Mahapakulchai, Terapass Jariyanorawiss

The longstanding issue of academic credential forgery and verification delays demands innovative solutions. This research explores the potential of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and Blockchain technology to revolutionize digital certificate management. We developed a secure system that issues and verifies NFTs representing certificates, drawing inspiration from the NFTCert project. Our system uses a decentralized database (IPFS) with Pinata to ensure secure data storage and access. Initial testing demonstrates our system can issue and verify certificates faster and more securely than traditional methods, significantly reducing fraud risks and streamlining verification processes. This research contributes valuable insights into the feasibility and limitations of NFT-based certificate verification, paving the way for a more secure and efficient future of academic credential management.

D Davidson, Nicola Vasey, Adam Pattison Rathbone, Charlotte Lucy Richardson

Abstract Introduction Pharmacy education in the United Kingdom must adapt to produce independent prescribing pharmacists ready to join an evolving healthcare system. Current placement practices exclude approximately 21% of the population due to a lack of specific recommendations surrounding paediatric experience and knowledge within the MPharm programme.[1] In turn, students’ current experiences may be limited by lack of interaction with unique learning outcomes offered by some healthcare settings, such as paediatric hospitals.[2] To promote student exposure in an overlooked speciality, novel approaches to work-based learning can be utilised. Aim This study aimed to explore pharmacy students’ experiences of work-based learning in a paediatric hospital setting. Methods In October 2022, fourth-year MPharm students at one school of pharmacy were invited to undertake work-based learning sessions across one academic year. The sessions aimed to develop students’ paediatric consultations skills and knowledge. Sessions consisted of a briefing, ward activities, scaffolded consultations with children and carers, and debriefs with a clinical supervisor. Debriefs included students reporting clinical information, required action and learning outcomes. All debriefs provided by students were transcribed by a clinical supervisor using a spreadsheet which recorded the date, ward visited, patient details, student handover, follow-up (if required) and learning outcomes. Data was initially cleaned, quality checked, and underwent content analysis to identify patterns and key themes to describe student experiences. Results Seventy-four students took part in sessions and delivered 233 consultations covering the medical history of the patient (76%, n=177), with varied levels of completeness. Students were exposed to acute conditions (41%, n=96) and chronic conditions (33%, n=76), with 13% (n=30) still awaiting diagnosis. Forty-eight percent (n=81) of learning points related to the pathology, diagnosis and symptoms of conditions, 24% (n=41) to medicines, 15% (n=25) to patient care, 11% (n=18) to non-clinical experiences and 2% (n=4) to other outcomes. In addition to carrying out ward activities, students underwent the processing of experiences during post-session debriefs: “It’s uncomfortable seeing a child struggle to breathe” [P131]. The process of active reflection was also evidenced in debriefs: “I felt very anxious, like a tightness in the chest, to hear that a child had a short life expectancy” [P145]; “I realised they had zero cultural competence after seeing a patient from the Middle East with jaundice” [P233]. Conclusion The study demonstrates a proof of concept that students can be exposed to complex care needs and challenging consultations under indirect supervision, demonstrating the paediatric setting to be a suitable work-based learning host. However, findings are limited to a single cohort of students at a single site, meaning transferability may be limited. Future studies could focus on longitudinal educational and emotional outcomes of students by measuring clinical knowledge, competence and confidence. Utilising post-session debriefs with peers and supervisors created a space to share both pharmaceutical and emotional learning points, aiding in managing the cognitive load of students. This experience not only highlights the requirement of paediatric exposure in pharmacy education programmes to aid the students’ future practice, but the importance of supervised reflective activities following work-based learning experiences. References 1. Office for National Statistics. Ethnic group by age and sex, England and Wales: Census 2021. 2023. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicgroupbyageandsexenglandandwales/census2021 2. Kerth J-L, van Treel L, Bosse HM. The Use of Entrustable Professional Activities in Pediatric Postgraduate Medical Education: A Systematic Review. Academic Pediatrics. 2022;22(1):21-8.

Alexander Pfeiffer, Stephen Bezzina, Natalie Denk, Vince Vella · 5 authors

Appears in: ICERI2022 Proceedings Publication year: 2022Pages: 776-781ISBN: 978-84-09-45476-1ISSN: 2340-1095doi: 10.21125/iceri.2022.0243Conference name: 15th annual International Conference of Education, Research and InnovationDates: 7-9 November, 2022Location: Seville, Spain

Karen H. Frith

Colleges and universities are on the cusp of a new ecosystem where certificates, microcredentials, and digital badges could become a significant addition to traditional degree offerings. These alternative credentials are shorter and focused on a specific set of competencies. Fong et al. (2016) defined alternative credentials as competencies, skills, and learning outcomes derived from assessment-based, nondegree activities aligned to specific, timely needs in the workforce. The impetus for alternative credentials has come from employers who need a workforce with competencies that match their evolving products, services, and business models (Perna, 2021). This need affects all sectors of the economy, including business, technology, education, and health care (Clements et al., 2020; Heckstall, 2021; Pakstis, 2019; Southard, 2021). A new practice in postsecondary and higher education allows microcredentials to be “stackable,” leading to customized qualifications often as part of a certificate, degree, or credentials for a specific career (Bailey & Belfield, 2017). Blockchain is a possible solution to track competencies in educational programs and credentials for lifelong learning in nursing. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY Blockchain technology is “shared, distributed ledger technology (DLT) that uses an agreed-upon and encrypted process to ensure that the information on the ledger is tamper-proof and that the data on the blockchain can be trusted even without centralized, third-party validation” (Lemoie & Soares, 2020, p. 7). In other words, blockchain is a cloud-based record-keeping system. There are three critical criteria for DLT: 1) an application layer for users to see and share their stored microcredentials or digital badges with employers or educational organizations, 2) secured software and processes that govern the distributed ledger, and 3) servers connected to a peer-to-peer network running the distributed ledger. Watch the video on blockchain produced by the American Council on Education (ACE) found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Id28NAH_VjY to better understand the technology. At the time of the ACE report, Connected Impact: Unlocking Education and Workforce Opportunity through Blockchain (Lemoie & Soares, 2020), 71 DLTs existed. These DLTs varied their development stages: Many were in the proof of concept or pilot stages with different technology standards for verifying credentials and giving credential earners control of their data. Following the initial report, the ACE conducted an education blockchain initiative with four pilot projects funded by the US Department of Education (Hanson et al., 2021). The final report cited several essential lessons learned from the pilot projects. Stakeholders need to be engaged early in the development of DLT so the outcomes are consistent with the needs of all potential end-users. The imperatives for DLT are as follows: low cost to allow access for individuals from economically disadvantaged backgrounds and public sector K-12, postsecondary, and higher education institutions; standards based to ensure interoperability across business organizations and educational institutions; and open source to remove dependency on vendors, specific platforms, or blockchain systems. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING The landscape of nursing education is complex, with different paths for initial licensure and advanced education. In its recent Essentials, the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (2021) called for a national movement toward competency-based education in nursing. Could DLTs provide the technology to show the competencies with digital badges or microcredentials? Could a national DLT be created as a warehouse of microcredentials and certifications? The DLT is undoubtedly in an emerging stage, with few standards to create interoperability between technical schools, colleges, universities, certificate-awarding organizations, and health care organizations. However, the time is right to consider a national DLT for nursing education and practice.

Daniel Cabrera, Christopher P Nickson, Damian Roland, Elissa Hall · 5 authors

Current health professions education (HPE) institutions are based on an assembly-line hierarchical structure. The last decade has witnessed the advent of sophisticated networks allowing the exchange of information and educational assets. Blockchain provides an ideal data management framework that can support high-order applications such as learning systems and credentialing in an open and a distributed fashion. These system management characteristics enable the creation of a distributed autonomous organization of learning (DAOL). This new type of organization allows for the creation of decentralized adaptive competency curricula, simplification of credentialing and certification, leveling of information asymmetry among educational market stakeholders, assuring alignment with societal priorities, and supporting equity and transparency.

Dr.Wissam Abdelmouli, Mohammed Al-Amiri, Fakhrya El Yahyani, Badr Al-Maamari · 5 authors

The objectives of current technical education aim to bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and contemporary practices. Integration of Theoretical and Practical Knowledge: Technical education seeks to combine theoretical knowledge with practical skills and applications. It aims to provide students with a solid foundation of scientific principles and concepts while emphasizing hands-on learning experiences. By integrating theory and practice, technical education prepares students to apply their knowledge in real-world scenarios and adapt to evolving industry practices. Industry Relevance and Employability: One of the primary objectives of technical education is to equip students with the skills and knowledge that are relevant to current industry needs. It focuses on understanding the demands of the job market, identifying emerging trends, and aligning curricula with industry requirements. This approach ensures that graduates are prepared for the workforce, possess the necessary technical competencies, and have a higher employability rate. Practical Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking: Technical education fosters the development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Students are encouraged to analyze complex problems, identify innovative solutions, and apply scientific knowledge to practical situations. By emphasizing analytical and logical reasoning, technical education prepares students to address challenges in their respective fields and contribute to technological advancements. Application of Contemporary Technologies: Technical education recognizes the importance of contemporary technologies in various industries. It aims to expose students to the latest tools, software, equipment, and techniques relevant to their chosen fields. By providing hands-on experience with contemporary technologies, technical education enables students to adapt to technological advancements and become proficient in using them effectively. Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Technical education encourages an entrepreneurial mindset and fosters innovation. It aims to nurture creativity, risk-taking, and the ability to identify and seize opportunities. Students are encouraged to think critically, develop innovative solutions, and explore entrepreneurial ventures. By promoting entrepreneurship and innovation, technical education contributes to economic growth and job creation. Lifelong Learning and Adaptability: Technical education recognizes the rapid pace of change in today's world and the need for individuals to be adaptable and continuously update their skills. It instills a mindset of lifelong learning, encouraging students to stay abreast of technological advancements, industry trends, and changing practices. Technical education equips students with the ability to learn independently, engage in self-directed learning, and adapt to evolving professional requirements. Ethical and Social Responsibility: Technical education emphasizes ethical and social responsibility in the application of scientific knowledge. Students are encouraged to consider the ethical implications of their work, including sustainability, environmental impact, and social equity. Technical education promotes responsible practices, ethical decision-making, and awareness of the broader societal impact of technological advancements. Overall, the objectives of current technical education revolve around equipping students with a strong foundation in scientific knowledge, practical skills, and a mindset that prepares them to contribute to their respective industries. By combining theory with practice, emphasizing industry relevance, fostering critical thinking and innovation, and promoting lifelong learning, technical education aims to bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and contemporary practices, creating a skilled and adaptable workforce.Current technical education objectives between scientific knowledge and digital practices: UNESCO supported artistic education through two complementary approaches. The first concerns artistic expressions and classical and contemporary cultural sources as a tool for education and a demonstration of the richness of knowledge and the enrichment of culture. With regard to the second approach, cultural prospects and diversification of cultural action were targeted. The introduction of cultural arts and practices into the educational setting has become the gain that enables the development of thought and sense and balances the psyche of the individual and societies. A specialized scientific journal has been published that ranges from theoretical to applied and is interested in technical teaching in many countries. It contains a series of critical approaches and attempts to open up the prospects of artistic and cultural education. What changes the digital age in these practices? Digitization contributes to seamless access to sources, which brings good specifications to the teaching of artistic and cultural education, as pedagogical files, virtual exhibitions and videos can be found. Does Digital Push Interregional Justice? It can be confirmed that digital education contributes to expanding the teaching of art education in many areas, even in rural areas. In this context, the teaching of technical education in France has been included in the Official Lead, in accordance with chapter No. 2013-595 of 8 July 2013, with a view to reviving the Republic's school. The application of contemporary technologies has become pervasive across various sectors, transforming industries and impacting daily life. Here are some key areas where contemporary technologies are being applied: Information Technology (IT) and Software Development: Contemporary technologies such as cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and big data analytics are revolutionizing the IT industry. These technologies enable the development of innovative software applications, data analysis tools, and digital platforms that enhance productivity, efficiency, and user experiences. Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT refers to the interconnection of everyday objects and devices via the internet. It involves the use of sensors, actuators, and network connectivity to collect and exchange data. The application of IoT technology spans various domains, including smart homes, smart cities, industrial automation, agriculture, healthcare, and transportation, enabling increased efficiency, automation, and data-driven decision-making. Robotics and Automation: Contemporary technologies have significantly advanced robotics and automation systems. Robots are being used in manufacturing industries for tasks such as assembly, packaging, and quality control. Automation technologies, including robotic process automation (RPA) and intelligent process automation (IPA), are being applied in sectors such as finance, logistics, and customer service to streamline workflows and improve operational efficiency. Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technologies: Contemporary technologies play a vital role in the development and application of renewable energy sources. Solar panels, wind turbines, and hydroelectric systems are examples of how technology is utilized to harness clean energy. Sustainable technologies, including energy-efficient buildings, smart grids, and waste management systems, help reduce environmental impact and promote sustainability. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): AR and VR technologies offer immersive and interactive experiences by blending the digital and physical worlds. They find applications in various industries, including gaming, entertainment, healthcare, education, and training. AR and VR can enhance learning experiences, provide realistic simulations, and revolutionize product design and visualization. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering: Contemporary technologies have revolutionized the field of biotechnology and genetic engineering. Techniques such as gene editing, including CRISPR-Cas9, enable precise modifications of genetic material. These technologies have applications in healthcare, agriculture, and industrial processes, leading to advancements in personalized medicine, crop improvement, and bio manufacturing. Block chain Technology: Block chain is a decentralized and transparent technology that ensures secure and tamper-proof transactions and data storage. It has applications in various sectors, including finance, supply chain management, healthcare, and digital identity verification. Block chain technology enables increased trust, transparency, and efficiency in transactions and data management. 3D Printing: Also known as additive manufacturing, 3D printing allows the creation of three-dimensional objects layer by layer based on digital designs. It has applications in manufacturing, prototyping, architecture, healthcare, and aerospace industries. 3D printing technology enables rapid prototyping, customization, and reduced material waste. Cybersecurity: As technology advances, the need for robust cybersecurity measures becomes critical. Contemporary technologies are applied to develop advanced security systems, encryption algorithms, and intrusion detection mechanisms to protect digital assets and sensitive information. Cybersecurity technologies are crucial in safeguarding networks, systems, and data from unauthorized access and cyber threats. These are just a few examples of how contemporary technologies are being applied across various sectors. The rapid pace of technological advancements continues to open up new possibilities and drive innovation, leading to transformative changes in industries and society as a whole.

Brent Smith, Laura Milham

No abstract is available for this record.

Alexander Mikroyannidis, Allan Third, John Domingue, Michelle Bachler · 5 authors

The emergence of the blockchain promises to revolutionise not only the financial world but also lifelong learning in various ways. Blockchain technology offers opportunities to thoroughly rethink how we find educational content and tutoring services online, how we register and pay for them, as well as how we get accredited for what we have learned and how this accreditation affects our career trajectory. This chapter explores the different aspects of lifelong learning that are affected by this new paradigm and describes an ecosystem that places the learner at the centre of the learning process and its associated data. This chapter also discusses the possibilities that will be afforded by the combination of trustworthy educational data enhanced with meaningful web-accessible linked data, and what these developments will mean for learners, educators, and the employment market.

Peter Williams

New technologies and the knowledge economy are destabilising graduate professions, with artificial intelligence and the analysis of ‘big data’ making significant impacts on formerly secure jobs. Blockchain technology, offering automated secure credentialling of undergraduate students’ activities and achievements, may significantly erode existing systems of assessment. The challenge for universities will be not only to maintain the relevance of their curricula but also to manage erosion of their current near-monopoly in awarding degrees. This paper envisions a landscape in which universities must outsource parts of their course delivery and assessment in order to remain competitive. It examines a potentially sustainable mission strategy: to move away from narrow academic disciplines towards an authentic learning curriculum focusing on the development of students as whole persons with rounded educations. This paper examines implications for the academy of the convergence of artificial intelligence, data analytics and blockchain technology.

Margo Hoftijzer, Piotr Stronkowski, Jakub Rozenbaum

Describes how vocational education and training (VET) fits in Poland’s overall education system, as well as the key features of the VET system and work-based learning (WBL) programs in Poland and the ?wi?tokrzyskie region. Compulsory education lasts nine years and consists of primary education, starting at age seven, and three years of lower secondary education, usually ending at age sixteen. Differentiation of educational pathways begins at the upper secondary level and includes (1) three-year general education; (2) four-year technical education; (3) three-year basic vocational education; and (4) three-year special needs education preparing for work, designed for students with learning disabilities. Management of education provision remains decentralized, with financing of secondary education based on transfers from the national budget. Beyond the apprenticeship scheme in basic vocational education, VET programs hardly require students to spend any time in firms, but key arrangements to organize and implement WBL exist in contracts between employers and VET schools.

Alexander Mikroyannidis, John Domingue, Michelle Bachler, Kevin Quick

The emergence of Blockchain technology promises to revolutionise not only the financial world, but also lifelong learning in many different ways. Blockchain technology offers opportunities to thoroughly rethink how we find educational content and training services online, how we register and pay for them, as well as how we get accredited for what we have learned and how this accreditation affects our career trajectory. This paper explores the different aspects of lifelong learning that are affected by this new paradigm and describes an ecosystem that places the learner at the centre of the learning process and its associated data. More specifically, we outline the ways that ePortfolios, accreditation and tutoring can evolve within this learner-centred ecosystem and we discuss the various benefits that this evolution bears for lifelong learners.

Natakorn Limsuwanrot, Taweesak Kritjaroen, Winai Homsombat

The economic crisis in 1997 caused tremendous changes to higher education system in Thailand, in particular the decentralization of university's administration. A number of Thai public universities have been gradually transforming to be autonomous universities. However, almost all cannot achieve the most important goal for academic excellence as reflected by global recognition. During the transitional period, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) was the only public university that transformed from a university under the Civil Services to be an autonomous public university. The university could sustain as one of the leading universities and be ranked in the top 400 World university by Times Higher Education (THE). It relatively outperformed other universities and was regarded as a role model for Thai higher education development. This research aimed to figure out how autonomous public universities could manage to secure from the Thai bureaucratic system and innovate themselves to sustain continuous improvement in the world class university leagues. Key factors influencing autonomous public university to be recognized as a leading and world-class university were explored. Research data were studied and gathered from primary source by an in-depth interview from KMUTT management teams and other relevant stakeholders. Secondary data were also used such as the university's documents and other related studies. Findings from descriptive and content analyses revealed that leadership and teamwork have played crucial roles for KMUTT during the transitional period. Strategic foresight with various initiative projects by KMUTT management team in 1998 created sharp- and-shared vision that paved the way of science and technology university to be one of the leading universities in Thailand and successfully stepped into the world-class university. A commitment to be Learning University has substantially influenced KMUTT to be ranked among world-class university and resulted in present success.

Saowaluck Tepsuriwong, Thanis Bunsom

Liu and Carless (2006) propose that peer assessment through peer feedback giving has its potential for enhanced student learning. Introducing formative assessment, using valid and reliable rubrics, can be beneficial to both teachers and learners in the process of learner improvement. However, Carless’s experiences in Hong Kong, a Confucius-based society where high-stake summative examinations are heavily prioritised, are solid proofs of how culture can interfere with education. In Asian societies, including Thailand, teachers having superior and absolute power in assessment are respected by students and hence, teacher voices take precedence over those of their peers. Implementing peer assessment in Asian classrooms, therefore, is problematic and to a certain extent, impossible. In this research, in order to expand our students’ learning boundaries beyond familiar, traditional ways of teacher assessment of which an end result is a grade, we introduced peer assessment rubrics to our reading classroom to allow them to monitor their friends’ reading progress. The peer evaluation results and comments were analyzed and compared with that of the teacher. An in-depth interview was also conducted with six subjects after the assessment process. The findings showed that as most of our students were engineering students and the texts they were reading were literary excerpts, employing rubrics was very helpful in the learning process. Nevertheless, as a result of long standing culture, final grades were still their priority. Our conclusive suggestions were that structural changes in assessment would be needed and they would certainly take time amidst the assessment culture in Thailand. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n14p279

Jing Guan

Modern apprenticeship is the priority of current vocational education reform in France. This article overviews the reform, including the background, the achievements, the management and the pedagogy. It reflects on the features of the reform in the end: government-led, decentralization, higher education level, financing drive and quality assurance.

Ka-Ho Mok, Xiaozhou Xu

The economic transition in China since the late 1970s has led to not only drastic social transformations but also rapid advancements in science and technology, as well as the revolution in information and communications technology. In order to enhance the global competence of the Chinese population in coping with the challenges of the knowledge-based economy, the higher education sector has been going through restructuring along the lines of marketization, privatization, and decentralization. Responding to the globalization challenges, the Chinese government has opened up the education market by allowing private/ minban higher education institutions and even overseas universities to offer academic programs in the mainland. Hence, we have witnessed the proliferation of education providers, the diversification of education financing, and the increase in private—public partnership in education provision since the policy of educational decentralization was introduced in the mid-1980s. After China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Chinese government has allowed overseas universities in collaboration with local universities to co-launch higher education programs. In this policy context, we set out in this chapter to examine the current developments of transnational higher education in China. More specifically, we focus on how students in Zhejiang province enrolling in these overseas programs evaluate their learning experiences. We also identify and discuss major issues arising from the onset of transnational education in China. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Dan Ţogoe

Without a real change, the Romanian education system and especially the preuniversity system will not be able to overcome its instability and provisional character. The reforms that started in 2000 must continue. The success of the decentralization of the pre-university system, as a basic component of the reform, greatly depends on the manner in which the financing of preuniversity education must be carried out in accordance with the number of pupils, and the funds must be assigned to place the pupil in a flexible and facile environment.

Bogadi Nage-Sibande

Botswana is a landlocked semi-arid country sharing boundaries with Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Its land area is 581,730 square kilometers, most of which (about 60%) is covered by the Kalahari Desert. The desert, consisting of rolling sandy land with wide plains, depressions, and pans, covers a major part of the southern and western parts of the country. The eastern part, characterized by fertile grassland savannah, accounts for nearly two thirds of the population. The country has four seasons: summer (November-January), autumn (February-April), winter (May-July) and spring (August-October). Most of the rainfall is experienced during the summer time. Temperatures range from a maximum of about 40°C (104°F) in the hottest parts of the country during summer, to a minimum of about 2.6°C (approx. 37°F) and an occasional 0.0°C (32°F) in some places, in the coldest winter months (Central Statistics Office 2000).The country’s enumerated population was 1,680,863 during the 2001 population census, with an average annual growth rate of about 2.4%. The population structure indicates a youthful population, with a mean age of 24.5. The age below 15 years constitutes about 36.7%, while those between 15 and 64 constitute about 58.3% of the total population. The population at 65 and older constitutes an average of 5.0% of the total population (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2003). The population is mainly concentrated along the eastern belt of the country, where there is better rainfall and cultivatable land, and comparatively fewer people are scattered in the western parts of the country and the Kalahari Desert. Noted from the 2001 population census were declining fertility rate—from 6.6 in 1981 to 3.3 in 2001, increasing mortality rate, and a decline in life expectancy from 65 in 1991 to 55.3 in 2001. Due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic, the crude death rate rose between 1991 and 2001 from 11.5 to 13.5 (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2003). The fall in life expectancy, notwithstanding a significant rise in living standards, is largely due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic that has been most severe among the most disadvantaged, especially women and girls who constitute more than 50% of the population and within the most economically productive ages of 20 to 49 years.Setswana and English are the official languages, with English being the most used as the language of government and business transactions. In comparison to most African countries, Botswana is culturally homogenous, and nearly 80% of the population belongs to one ethnic and linguistic group (Tau, 2003). For close to 4 decades since independence in 1966, Botswana has maintained a stable democracy, experienced a stable government, and a steadily expanding economy. This has contributed to a steady growth in the education system.In 1966, the landlocked Botswana was labeled “the least educationally developed British African colony … caught in a poverty trap,” with no infrastructure or financial resources and extremely limited developed human capital (Colclough & McCarthy 1980). A railway line connecting the two then-apartheid neighbors of Northern Rhodesia in the north and South Africa in the south was the only reliable mode of transport along the eastern part of the country. There was not a single tarmac road. Communication across the country depended on a very poor postal service. The western part of the country, which is mainly covered with the thick sands of the Kgalagadi Desert, with difficult terrain, was then accessible by fourwheel drive vehicles only (Mokaeya, 1986).The above scenario posed a grave access challenge for the education sector of an extremely poor country situated within a politically hostile immediate environment and a fast-moving international economy. The first 10 years of independence were an uphill struggle for the education sector, services impossible to take to some parts of the country. Botswana’s tradition of shuttling between village, cattle-post, and land areas throughout the year compounded the problem. Seasonally, boys followed their fathers to the cattle posts and girls their mothers to go and mind crops at the land areas. The much more nomadic groups in the Kgalagadi and other remote areas were the hardest hit with inequalities of service provision and scarcity of education opportunities.Until 1935, there was neither a government school nor an education department within the country (Mokaeya, 1992). At the time, the few Botswana students who obtained secondary or higher education qualifications did so through South African and Southern Rhodesian institutions. Secondary education was introduced in the Botswana education system in the late 1940s through efforts of the Roman Catholic Church, followed later by the establishment of a tribal college. Mokaeya (1992) notes that it was only toward independence, around 1958, that plans to develop the education system of Botswana began. Records indicate that, by 1966, there were 251 primary schools with an enrolment of 71,546, serviced by a teaching force of 1,673 (Ministry of Education, 1986). There were nine secondary schools with 1,531 students between 89 teachers, most of whom were expatriates, and only about 40 Batswana graduates at the time (Crowder, 1998). With this state of affairs, government (a major employer) depended mainly on expatriates.At independence in 1966, development and expansion of education was identified as a major tool for Botswana’s development process (Crowder, 1984) through which government intended to make available a stock of trained local manpower capable of servicing the country’s economy.Table 1 reflects, by percentage of age group, expansion of enrollment at the various levels of the education system between 1965 and 1975. To date, there is only oneAs noted by Tau (2003), education developments in Botswana are attributed to two landmark policies. The first National Policy on Education, adopted in 1977, put more emphasis on access, mainly to basic education and, to a lesser extent, other levels. Consequently, educational opportunities were substantially expanded at this level, as evidenced by increased enrollments between 1979 and 1991. There were about 700 primary schools by 1991, while secondary schools increased from 23 to 230 during the same period. Teacher training colleges increased threefold from two in 1979, while vocational institutions were introduced in most of the major population centers. Implementation of the 1977 National Policy on Education saw a massive expansion of school places. Between 1979 and 1991, enrollments in primary, secondary, and the University of Botswana rose by 91%, 342% and 315% respectively. Corresponding expansion was experienced in the teacher training sector, where the Ministry of Education succeeded in reducing dependence on expatriate teachers and achieved a significant drop in pupil-teacher ratio, from 1:40 in the 1980s to 1:27 in 1999 (Nhundu, Kamau, & Thutoetsile, 2002).As part of the Ministry of Education policy to increase access into postprimary education, a 10-year basic education program is being implemented, consisting of 7 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary schooling. Examinations are taken at the end of each level to qualify students for entry into the next higher level, depending on availability of places. A 100% transition rate has been achieved for primary to junior secondary school while, in 2003, about 52% of students who completed Junior Certificate were able to gain admission into senior secondary schools (Tau, 2003). The remaining 48% find places in private secondary schools, brigades, and distance education. The transition rate into senior secondary schools is expected to increase to 100% by the year 2016, as per the National Vision 2016, when Botswana will attain 50 years of independence. The second education policy, the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE), was adopted in 1994 following recommendations of a 1993 Presidential National Commission on Education. Though quantitative expansion of education is still a major concern, the second and current education policy focuses mainly on qualitative improvement of the education system.The 1993/1994 review of the education system identified several key issues that will continue to guide developments in the education sector in Botswana over a period of 25 years from 1994.Equity in terms of delivery of social services, including education, remains a far cry since rural/urban disparities are huge, mainly due to the terrain. To date, even though the situation has changed dramatically, and primary as well as secondary level education is reaching most parts of the country with comparative ease, the western part is still the most disadvantaged. There is still one university in Botswana, and the majority of students access university education outside the country, which is a huge expense for the government. Access, equity, and equality of opportunity are still a challenging concern for the education sector.Another serious challenge for education and all sectors of the economy, threatening to undermine or even reverse achievements recorded so far, is the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Botswana, with a prevalence of about 35.4% within the 15–49 years population (Ministry of Finance & Development Planning, 2003). HIV/ AIDS has far-reaching implications for efforts so far made in education, resulting in slow pace of expansion and service improvement. Absenteeism, increased morbidity, and mortality of teachers affect productivity adversely. Learner attendance is also highly affected, with students either ill or nursing relatives. Currently, more and more children of school-going age are becoming heads of families because of loss of parents and the need to look after orphaned siblings. The epidemic is reported to be more prevalent and claiming life mainly in the 15-49 age bracket, which is the most sexually active and also including the majority of trained personnel. In a few years, the economy might be back to where it was at independence in terms of skilled and experienced manpower if people continue to die at the present alarming rate. Another challenge for the education sector is to provide adequate support, knowledge, and skills to students and teachers to cope with the challenges of HIV/AIDS.Since the colonial era, through independence, and until 1973, adult Batswana needing formal qualifications could only enroll with institutions from outside the country for correspondence courses, mainly through South African, British, and Rhodesian institutions. For university education, the University of South Africa was the main correspondence institution in the region (Mokaeya 1992). Within the country, government and nongovernmental organizations offered sporadic and nonexamination courses of various lengths. Churches were the first to offer adult literacy classes. Government departments started offering nonformal courses immediately after independence.According to Mokaeya (1992) the first traces of formal distance education date back to before independence when an Elementary Teacher Training project of 1960-1965 was undertaken at Lobatse Teacher Training College, facilitated by colonial masters from Mafeking in South Africa. By the time the project came to an end, it had demonstrated the viability of distance education as an alternative method of training teachers. Hence, government attempts to overcome severe shortages of trained primary school teachers due to post-1966 demographic pressure for education should be attributed to the success of the 1960-1965 project (Tau, 2003). The local Ministry of Education’s first attempt at an organized distance education program developed in Botswana was another teacher-training project for primary school teachers, from 1968 to 1973 in Francistown. About 700 teachers joined the program, receiving self-instructional printed materials at their schools, supported by radio broadcasts. Occasionally the student teachers had access to some face-to-face tutorial assistance from tutors at the Francistown Teacher Training College, as well as regular assistance from qualified teachers from their own schools. By the end of the project in 1973, about 88% of the teachers had graduated (Mokaeya, 1992). The success of this project influenced the government to set up the Botswana Extension College (BEC). Two consultancies by UNESCO and International Extension College (IEC) UK spearheaded the establishment of Botswana Extension College in 1973, with financial support from the Ford Foundation and professional guidance for setting up the institution from IEC. BEC became the first government secondary-level correspondence school in Botswana.BEC’s mandate was to offer a wide range of subjects’ using ‘correspondence courses, radio and face to face methods. The college intended to offer Junior Certificate courses to upgrading adults and young people who did not do well in their examinations at this level and then move on to offer Ordinary Level courses.In addition to formal courses leading to examinations, BEC also offered nonformal courses to the adult rural population, and some extension workers in other Ministries. The college and the Ministry of Local Government and Lands ran a program for Village development Committees, with Ministry of Agriculture a program for 4B clubs (clubs that provide youth with agricultural skills—ed.) and a land reform program through radio learning groups (Mokaeya, 1992). BEC, in collaboration with UNESCO and the Extra Mural Services of the University of Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, which later became the Institute of Adult Education, initiated consultations for a functional literacy training program that targeted about 250,000 adults and youth. A literacy project by BEC was consequently implemented from 1977 to 1978 (Mokaeya, 1986).Experiences of BEC resulted in the creation of the Department of Non-formal Education (DNFE) in 1978, following recommendations of the 1977 National Commission on education. DNFE created several units, among them a unit responsible specifically for the development and delivery of a distance education program. The distance education program of DNFE got entangled into the problem of inadequate Junior Certificate places in secondary schools for primary school leavers. DNFE found itself having to admit children of schoolgoing age (i.e. primary school leaving), into Junior Certificate program, which was for adults and youth who were from the Junior Certificate program and to their The unit developed printed materials for and secondary school teachers as support at learning centers. The department experienced several in the of distance education among them were the as identified by the 1993 National Commission on the of the second National Commission on Education the establishment of a distance education college that take over the of the distance education unit of the Department of Non-formal Education. Consequently, a distance education the Ministry of College of and in by a of and with the of expanding education and training opportunities through the of distance education is Batswana with education and skills through access to distance learning and the of a of of the current education policy are to Batswana for the transition from a economy to the economy to which the country (Ministry of Education, The education and training to that the country in as a major for Botswana, by them an education for for of education are the school system and face-to-face and institutions do not cope with for education and training or the of skilled manpower for Botswana’s economy. to increase access to education and training and to of the 1993 National Commission on Education distance education as an part of the education Kamau, and the that the Botswana government should develop and the of distance education. The government has since serious to the of distance education as a alternative for increasing access to education and training in To this end, in addition to the establishment of a college of distance education, the 1993 Commission on Education also that the for Education of the University of Botswana be to in the development and delivery of distance education in the two institutions are the for distance education in Botswana, there are other government and private organizations that distance education, for development through departments at in the capital of Botswana, and to the country. the the college a system through learning and mainly within schools in collaboration with the Ministry of Education. services remote who no or limited access to secondary school and school and services of the school teachers outside school over and during school Ministry of Education of education and sharing of courses in the secondary school level of Junior Certificate and Botswana Certificate of Secondary Education For the program, the student is made up mainly of upgrading since the school system is able to about 100% of primary school into junior secondary schools. The of the student than is made up of in the senior secondary program For the school and the college recorded an enrolment of by within about years of Currently, the college in of on an annual and has a student of about The college is able to take about through examinations at levels. the same examinations of the Ministry of Education as the of the schools in the country. A comparative of between distance education and school indicates that is very well since first examinations in level, was from and for and For the examinations, government schools achieved higher in A to the of is very 1 that is at with government schools, even though the of is still addition to school the college has also introduced and professional courses at level for professional business basic and for The courses are offered to of the or in with other organizations for groups of their or courses the college and the development and delivery of are mainly in with and other Botswana & Botswana, Ministry of education, Ministry of Botswana and are among the and who either courses and services or in and services of the in with level through distance education, in collaboration with other institutions in the as to Kamau, and by the University of Botswana to offer distance education date back to when the Certificate in Adult Education was by the then Institute of Adult Education, in collaboration with the Department of Non-formal Education to workers literacy group teachers in the DNFE National By the time this program was to to the in Adult Education, over literacy had been The main mode of delivery for this program materials supported by face-to-face and a in Education distance education program, to and professional qualifications of some primary teacher to teachers could not be to courses in institutions primary school the primary teacher training sector had no to cope with of At that time, the four colleges of primary education and could only admit about 10 teachers per college. At this rate of it was that it take an years to teachers through the face-to-face the distance education program a The mode of delivery for the program is mainly printed supported by and face-to-face during school This program is a between the Ministry of Education and the University of The university and and training of and and for that are at of Education during school To the and the of and examinations, the university has from among college who in close with college The Ministry of Education is responsible for the program and other resources that be to the program. this end, the has a within the Department of Teacher Training and to the of this program within various departments terms of infrastructure for support services, in of education are at the of the program. The is also using Education for of materials and The is a policy for of all educational resources in Botswana to be in support of nonformal and education a of this that plans are at an to from which schools or for the University in Education will be in secondary schools and Education will be to so that and other support services will be within of from that the opportunity to as their during the and social with a The in Education program has demonstrated that with it is to of resources as and when the students are on for Education also a in in Development through distance education. This program is offered with the which is the and the that the The first of 25 students has completed the program, which has been other government the Ministry of has been on the in the of distance education to to level since In collaboration with the Foundation this initiated an upgrading program for about to The program used a of printed face-to-face and as well as and to support in identified and them to the in By of had been to the nursing level through distance education. this program came to an end in it demonstrated that distance education be to courses in and other professional courses the of the areas 1994 Revised National Policy on Education that education institutions should make formal for courses and government departments and colleges are the of distance education in and for into development in which their in distance education in other and distance learning institutions all over the while continue with their At for more than 25 graduated from various distance education institutions in of from the of Botswana, and South Africa in Southern Africa, and and in the has graduated more than in the first of the English for The second and are expected to be around per The is to about over a period of the Botswana College has initiated with and to of offering some of courses through distance education. other institutions are distance education to training and in the environment of the Botswana, education and training are as two of the most of education has a very alternative for the provision of opportunities for people to continue learning while go on with their and or With for education and training that expansion of the face-to-face and limited distance education has one of the most to up access and opportunities for The mode has itself to be it is the support and financial

Yaacov Irám

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