THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA

Abstract

Botswana is a landlocked semi-arid country sharing boundaries with Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Its land area is 581,730 square kilometers, most of which (about 60%) is covered by the Kalahari Desert. The desert, consisting of rolling sandy land with wide plains, depressions, and pans, covers a major part of the southern and western parts of the country. The eastern part, characterized by fertile grassland savannah, accounts for nearly two thirds of the population. The country has four seasons: summer (November-January), autumn (February-April), winter (May-July) and spring (August-October). Most of the rainfall is experienced during the summer time. Temperatures range from a maximum of about 40°C (104°F) in the hottest parts of the country during summer, to a minimum of about 2.6°C (approx. 37°F) and an occasional 0.0°C (32°F) in some places, in the coldest winter months (Central Statistics Office 2000).The country’s enumerated population was 1,680,863 during the 2001 population census, with an average annual growth rate of about 2.4%. The population structure indicates a youthful population, with a mean age of 24.5. The age below 15 years constitutes about 36.7%, while those between 15 and 64 constitute about 58.3% of the total population. The population at 65 and older constitutes an average of 5.0% of the total population (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2003). The population is mainly concentrated along the eastern belt of the country, where there is better rainfall and cultivatable land, and comparatively fewer people are scattered in the western parts of the country and the Kalahari Desert. Noted from the 2001 population census were declining fertility rate—from 6.6 in 1981 to 3.3 in 2001, increasing mortality rate, and a decline in life expectancy from 65 in 1991 to 55.3 in 2001. Due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic, the crude death rate rose between 1991 and 2001 from 11.5 to 13.5 (Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2003). The fall in life expectancy, notwithstanding a significant rise in living standards, is largely due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic that has been most severe among the most disadvantaged, especially women and girls who constitute more than 50% of the population and within the most economically productive ages of 20 to 49 years.Setswana and English are the official languages, with English being the most used as the language of government and business transactions. In comparison to most African countries, Botswana is culturally homogenous, and nearly 80% of the population belongs to one ethnic and linguistic group (Tau, 2003). For close to 4 decades since independence in 1966, Botswana has maintained a stable democracy, experienced a stable government, and a steadily expanding economy. This has contributed to a steady growth in the education system.In 1966, the landlocked Botswana was labeled “the least educationally developed British African colony … caught in a poverty trap,” with no infrastructure or financial resources and extremely limited developed human capital (Colclough & McCarthy 1980). A railway line connecting the two then-apartheid neighbors of Northern Rhodesia in the north and South Africa in the south was the only reliable mode of transport along the eastern part of the country. There was not a single tarmac road. Communication across the country depended on a very poor postal service. The western part of the country, which is mainly covered with the thick sands of the Kgalagadi Desert, with difficult terrain, was then accessible by fourwheel drive vehicles only (Mokaeya, 1986).The above scenario posed a grave access challenge for the education sector of an extremely poor country situated within a politically hostile immediate environment and a fast-moving international economy. The first 10 years of independence were an uphill struggle for the education sector, services impossible to take to some parts of the country. Botswana’s tradition of shuttling between village, cattle-post, and land areas throughout the year compounded the problem. Seasonally, boys followed their fathers to the cattle posts and girls their mothers to go and mind crops at the land areas. The much more nomadic groups in the Kgalagadi and other remote areas were the hardest hit with inequalities of service provision and scarcity of education opportunities.Until 1935, there was neither a government school nor an education department within the country (Mokaeya, 1992). At the time, the few Botswana students who obtained secondary or higher education qualifications did so through South African and Southern Rhodesian institutions. Secondary education was introduced in the Botswana education system in the late 1940s through efforts of the Roman Catholic Church, followed later by the establishment of a tribal college. Mokaeya (1992) notes that it was only toward independence, around 1958, that plans to develop the education system of Botswana began. Records indicate that, by 1966, there were 251 primary schools with an enrolment of 71,546, serviced by a teaching force of 1,673 (Ministry of Education, 1986). There were nine secondary schools with 1,531 students between 89 teachers, most of whom were expatriates, and only about 40 Batswana graduates at the time (Crowder, 1998). With this state of affairs, government (a major employer) depended mainly on expatriates.At independence in 1966, development and expansion of education was identified as a major tool for Botswana’s development process (Crowder, 1984) through which government intended to make available a stock of trained local manpower capable of servicing the country’s economy.Table 1 reflects, by percentage of age group, expansion of enrollment at the various levels of the education system between 1965 and 1975. To date, there is only oneAs noted by Tau (2003), education developments in Botswana are attributed to two landmark policies. The first National Policy on Education, adopted in 1977, put more emphasis on access, mainly to basic education and, to a lesser extent, other levels. Consequently, educational opportunities were substantially expanded at this level, as evidenced by increased enrollments between 1979 and 1991. There were about 700 primary schools by 1991, while secondary schools increased from 23 to 230 during the same period. Teacher training colleges increased threefold from two in 1979, while vocational institutions were introduced in most of the major population centers. Implementation of the 1977 National Policy on Education saw a massive expansion of school places. Between 1979 and 1991, enrollments in primary, secondary, and the University of Botswana rose by 91%, 342% and 315% respectively. Corresponding expansion was experienced in the teacher training sector, where the Ministry of Education succeeded in reducing dependence on expatriate teachers and achieved a significant drop in pupil-teacher ratio, from 1:40 in the 1980s to 1:27 in 1999 (Nhundu, Kamau, & Thutoetsile, 2002).As part of the Ministry of Education policy to increase access into postprimary education, a 10-year basic education program is being implemented, consisting of 7 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary schooling. Examinations are taken at the end of each level to qualify students for entry into the next higher level, depending on availability of places. A 100% transition rate has been achieved for primary to junior secondary school while, in 2003, about 52% of students who completed Junior Certificate were able to gain admission into senior secondary schools (Tau, 2003). The remaining 48% find places in private secondary schools, brigades, and distance education. The transition rate into senior secondary schools is expected to increase to 100% by the year 2016, as per the National Vision 2016, when Botswana will attain 50 years of independence. The second education policy, the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE), was adopted in 1994 following recommendations of a 1993 Presidential National Commission on Education. Though quantitative expansion of education is still a major concern, the second and current education policy focuses mainly on qualitative improvement of the education system.The 1993/1994 review of the education system identified several key issues that will continue to guide developments in the education sector in Botswana over a period of 25 years from 1994.Equity in terms of delivery of social services, including education, remains a far cry since rural/urban disparities are huge, mainly due to the terrain. To date, even though the situation has changed dramatically, and primary as well as secondary level education is reaching most parts of the country with comparative ease, the western part is still the most disadvantaged. There is still one university in Botswana, and the majority of students access university education outside the country, which is a huge expense for the government. Access, equity, and equality of opportunity are still a challenging concern for the education sector.Another serious challenge for education and all sectors of the economy, threatening to undermine or even reverse achievements recorded so far, is the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Botswana, with a prevalence of about 35.4% within the 15–49 years population (Ministry of Finance & Development Planning, 2003). HIV/ AIDS has far-reaching implications for efforts so far made in education, resulting in slow pace of expansion and service improvement. Absenteeism, increased morbidity, and mortality of teachers affect productivity adversely. Learner attendance is also highly affected, with students either ill or nursing relatives. Currently, more and more children of school-going age are becoming heads of families because of loss of parents and the need to look after orphaned siblings. The epidemic is reported to be more prevalent and claiming life mainly in the 15-49 age bracket, which is the most sexually active and also including the majority of trained personnel. In a few years, the economy might be back to where it was at independence in terms of skilled and experienced manpower if people continue to die at the present alarming rate. Another challenge for the education sector is to provide adequate support, knowledge, and skills to students and teachers to cope with the challenges of HIV/AIDS.Since the colonial era, through independence, and until 1973, adult Batswana needing formal qualifications could only enroll with institutions from outside the country for correspondence courses, mainly through South African, British, and Rhodesian institutions. For university education, the University of South Africa was the main correspondence institution in the region (Mokaeya 1992). Within the country, government and nongovernmental organizations offered sporadic and nonexamination courses of various lengths. Churches were the first to offer adult literacy classes. Government departments started offering nonformal courses immediately after independence.According to Mokaeya (1992) the first traces of formal distance education date back to before independence when an Elementary Teacher Training project of 1960-1965 was undertaken at Lobatse Teacher Training College, facilitated by colonial masters from Mafeking in South Africa. By the time the project came to an end, it had demonstrated the viability of distance education as an alternative method of training teachers. Hence, government attempts to overcome severe shortages of trained primary school teachers due to post-1966 demographic pressure for education should be attributed to the success of the 1960-1965 project (Tau, 2003). The local Ministry of Education’s first attempt at an organized distance education program developed in Botswana was another teacher-training project for primary school teachers, from 1968 to 1973 in Francistown. About 700 teachers joined the program, receiving self-instructional printed materials at their schools, supported by radio broadcasts. Occasionally the student teachers had access to some face-to-face tutorial assistance from tutors at the Francistown Teacher Training College, as well as regular assistance from qualified teachers from their own schools. By the end of the project in 1973, about 88% of the teachers had graduated (Mokaeya, 1992). The success of this project influenced the government to set up the Botswana Extension College (BEC). Two consultancies by UNESCO and International Extension College (IEC) UK spearheaded the establishment of Botswana Extension College in 1973, with financial support from the Ford Foundation and professional guidance for setting up the institution from IEC. BEC became the first government secondary-level correspondence school in Botswana.BEC’s mandate was to offer a wide range of subjects’ using ‘correspondence courses, radio and face to face methods. The college intended to offer Junior Certificate courses to upgrading adults and young people who did not do well in their examinations at this level and then move on to offer Ordinary Level courses.In addition to formal courses leading to examinations, BEC also offered nonformal courses to the adult rural population, and some extension workers in other Ministries. The college and the Ministry of Local Government and Lands ran a program for Village development Committees, with Ministry of Agriculture a program for 4B clubs (clubs that provide youth with agricultural skills—ed.) and a land reform program through radio learning groups (Mokaeya, 1992). BEC, in collaboration with UNESCO and the Extra Mural Services of the University of Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, which later became the Institute of Adult Education, initiated consultations for a functional literacy training program that targeted about 250,000 adults and youth. A literacy project by BEC was consequently implemented from 1977 to 1978 (Mokaeya, 1986).Experiences of BEC resulted in the creation of the Department of Non-formal Education (DNFE) in 1978, following recommendations of the 1977 National Commission on education. DNFE created several units, among them a unit responsible specifically for the development and delivery of a distance education program. The distance education program of DNFE got entangled into the problem of inadequate Junior Certificate places in secondary schools for primary school leavers. DNFE found itself having to admit children of schoolgoing age (i.e. primary school leaving), into Junior Certificate program, which was for adults and youth who were from the Junior Certificate program and to their The unit developed printed materials for and secondary school teachers as support at learning centers. The department experienced several in the of distance education among them were the as identified by the 1993 National Commission on the of the second National Commission on Education the establishment of a distance education college that take over the of the distance education unit of the Department of Non-formal Education. Consequently, a distance education the Ministry of College of and in by a of and with the of expanding education and training opportunities through the of distance education is Batswana with education and skills through access to distance learning and the of a of of the current education policy are to Batswana for the transition from a economy to the economy to which the country (Ministry of Education, The education and training to that the country in as a major for Botswana, by them an education for for of education are the school system and face-to-face and institutions do not cope with for education and training or the of skilled manpower for Botswana’s economy. to increase access to education and training and to of the 1993 National Commission on Education distance education as an part of the education Kamau, and the that the Botswana government should develop and the of distance education. The government has since serious to the of distance education as a alternative for increasing access to education and training in To this end, in addition to the establishment of a college of distance education, the 1993 Commission on Education also that the for Education of the University of Botswana be to in the development and delivery of distance education in the two institutions are the for distance education in Botswana, there are other government and private organizations that distance education, for development through departments at in the capital of Botswana, and to the country. the the college a system through learning and mainly within schools in collaboration with the Ministry of Education. services remote who no or limited access to secondary school and school and services of the school teachers outside school over and during school Ministry of Education of education and sharing of courses in the secondary school level of Junior Certificate and Botswana Certificate of Secondary Education For the program, the student is made up mainly of upgrading since the school system is able to about 100% of primary school into junior secondary schools. The of the student than is made up of in the senior secondary program For the school and the college recorded an enrolment of by within about years of Currently, the college in of on an annual and has a student of about The college is able to take about through examinations at levels. the same examinations of the Ministry of Education as the of the schools in the country. A comparative of between distance education and school indicates that is very well since first examinations in level, was from and for and For the examinations, government schools achieved higher in A to the of is very 1 that is at with government schools, even though the of is still addition to school the college has also introduced and professional courses at level for professional business basic and for The courses are offered to of the or in with other organizations for groups of their or courses the college and the development and delivery of are mainly in with and other Botswana & Botswana, Ministry of education, Ministry of Botswana and are among the and who either courses and services or in and services of the in with level through distance education, in collaboration with other institutions in the as to Kamau, and by the University of Botswana to offer distance education date back to when the Certificate in Adult Education was by the then Institute of Adult Education, in collaboration with the Department of Non-formal Education to workers literacy group teachers in the DNFE National By the time this program was to to the in Adult Education, over literacy had been The main mode of delivery for this program materials supported by face-to-face and a in Education distance education program, to and professional qualifications of some primary teacher to teachers could not be to courses in institutions primary school the primary teacher training sector had no to cope with of At that time, the four colleges of primary education and could only admit about 10 teachers per college. At this rate of it was that it take an years to teachers through the face-to-face the distance education program a The mode of delivery for the program is mainly printed supported by and face-to-face during school This program is a between the Ministry of Education and the University of The university and and training of and and for that are at of Education during school To the and the of and examinations, the university has from among college who in close with college The Ministry of Education is responsible for the program and other resources that be to the program. this end, the has a within the Department of Teacher Training and to the of this program within various departments terms of infrastructure for support services, in of education are at the of the program. The is also using Education for of materials and The is a policy for of all educational resources in Botswana to be in support of nonformal and education a of this that plans are at an to from which schools or for the University in Education will be in secondary schools and Education will be to so that and other support services will be within of from that the opportunity to as their during the and social with a The in Education program has demonstrated that with it is to of resources as and when the students are on for Education also a in in Development through distance education. This program is offered with the which is the and the that the The first of 25 students has completed the program, which has been other government the Ministry of has been on the in the of distance education to to level since In collaboration with the Foundation this initiated an upgrading program for about to The program used a of printed face-to-face and as well as and to support in identified and them to the in By of had been to the nursing level through distance education. this program came to an end in it demonstrated that distance education be to courses in and other professional courses the of the areas 1994 Revised National Policy on Education that education institutions should make formal for courses and government departments and colleges are the of distance education in and for into development in which their in distance education in other and distance learning institutions all over the while continue with their At for more than 25 graduated from various distance education institutions in of from the of Botswana, and South Africa in Southern Africa, and and in the has graduated more than in the first of the English for The second and are expected to be around per The is to about over a period of the Botswana College has initiated with and to of offering some of courses through distance education. other institutions are distance education to training and in the environment of the Botswana, education and training are as two of the most of education has a very alternative for the provision of opportunities for people to continue learning while go on with their and or With for education and training that expansion of the face-to-face and limited distance education has one of the most to up access and opportunities for The mode has itself to be it is the support and financial