Blockchain Papers

Ahed Abugabah

No abstract is available for this record.

Jamal M. Al-Abdi, Adnan H. Al-Helali

The Internet of Things (IoT) is expected to interconnect more than 75 billion devices worldwide, yet device authenticity remains one of the most pressing unsolved security challenges in the IoT space. Typical IoT nodes have limited computing power, memory, and battery capacity, making traditional public-key-based authentication difficult to implement without compromising either security or resource conservation. This paper presents a structured narrative review and quantitative comparison of lightweight authentication protocols for IoT environments published between 2024 and 2026, spanning seven families: Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)-based, ECC for Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), hash-based, Physical Unclonable Function (PUF)-based, biometric and behavioural, blockchain-assisted, and machine-learning-augmented protocols. The review adds message-level protocol-flow comparisons for representative ECC- and PUF-based schemes, a benchmarking table of published latency, message-size, and energy indicators, and five sector-specific case studies. Reported findings include dynamic-credential ECC schemes reducing communication and computational overhead by more than 37% over prior ECC schemes; PUF-based techniques using machine learning to improve modelling-attack resistance by more than 35% over earlier techniques; blockchain-assisted authentication for fog-enabled IoT; and multi-sector schemes such as SELAP, reducing computation and communication cost to 422 ms and 960 bits respectively, against 548 ms and 2048 bits for the earlier ELWSCAS protocol. Protocols are also examined against ephemeral information leakage, modelling attacks on PUFs, node cloning, and physical tampering. No protocol category is universally optimal; selection depends on a deployment's constraints, threat model, and sector. Research is converging on hybrid designs combining hardware-rooted trust, efficient public-key primitives, decentralised trust, and intelligent anomaly detection.

Weiqiang Chen, Zhiyao Zhao, Haisheng Li, Jiping Xu · 6 authors

Fruit and vegetable supply chains generate heterogeneous data across production, storage, logistics, and sales, creating challenges for trusted data sharing, privacy protection, and real-time traceability across distributed supply-chain information systems. Conventional single-chain blockchains suffer from limited scalability, data redundancy, and low retrieval efficiency, making them inadequate for high-frequency full-process information management. This study proposes a multi-chain blockchain framework for trusted full-process information management of fruit and vegetable supply chains. The framework integrates traceability, enterprise, notary, and regulatory chains to support hierarchical data management and privacy isolation. A reputation-based notary node election mechanism and a threshold-signature scheme based on Shamir secret sharing are designed to enhance cross-chain security and distributed regulatory consensus. To improve retrieval efficiency, a Cuckoo-Augmented Merkle Tree (CMerkle) and a skip-list-based block index are developed. Simulation results show that all malicious nodes were restricted by the 19th round, signature aggregation required 70.16 ms in a 500-node setting, and CMerkle achieved retrieval speedups of 14.7 and 153 times at data scales of 500 and 10,000 records, respectively. The framework supports trusted data governance, real-time traceability, privacy-preserving sharing, and regulatory decision support in blockchain-enabled supply-chain information systems.

Rafael Hoffmann, Carlos Moratelli, Alex S. R. Pinto

ABSTRACT Background Preserving the quality and safety of perishable products requires continuous monitoring and reliable traceability. Although the Internet of Things (IoT) enables real‐time data collection, multi‐organizational supply chains lack a common mechanism for assigning data custody while maintaining transparency, integrity, and performance. Objective This study proposes and evaluates an architecture integrating IoT, edge/fog computing, and hybrid storage—an off‐chain traditional database combined with a permissioned blockchain—to monitor and trace perishable products. Methods A prototype was implemented using IoT devices and simulators, edge and fog components, and hybrid storage. High‐volume sensor data and critical records were stored off‐chain in MongoDB, while their corresponding hashes were stored on‐chain using Hyperledger Fabric. Four controlled experiments assessed insertion response time, the impact of increasing sensors and edge devices, blockchain queue performance under burst workloads, and blockchain storage consumption. The hybrid approach was compared with MongoDB‐only and Hyperledger Fabric‐only storage. Results Hybrid storage achieved insertion up to six times faster than blockchain‐only storage. Response times increased with simultaneous requests and additional edge devices, while asynchronous ordered insertion prevented transaction conflicts during bursts. The prototype achieved 18.5 transactions per second, below the 65 estimated for an illustrative supply‐chain scenario. Blockchain storage grew approximately 8 MB per 100 records, reaching about 1 GB for 12,800 hashes. Conclusion The prototype demonstrates the feasibility of combining off‐chain storage, permissioned blockchain records, and edge/fog processing to provide verifiable traceability while reducing on‐chain load. Larger‐scale, real‐world evaluations and storage‐management strategies remain necessary.

Agnes Nalini Vincent, Nassirah Laloo, Mohammad Sameer Sunhaloo, Uhoze Bagurubumwe

Digital elevation model (DEM)-based terrain analysis is an important geographic information system (GIS) methodology that serves as the core aspect for spatial analysis applications in geomorphological studies. These analyses can be performed using cloud-based platforms like Google Earth Engines or ArcGIS online, or using a local GIS platform called quantum GIS (QGIS). The resulting terrain data must be disseminated. Geospatial data sharing and dissemination are crucial for promoting cooperation, effectiveness, efficiency, and optimized decision-making in a variety of industries. Geospatial terrain data plays a crucial role in site selection and industrial planning, automated logistics, autonomous vehicle navigation, and infrastructure resilience in manufacturing ecosystems. However, existing literature states that traditional systems lack mechanisms to detect tampering in elevation models, land surveys, or hydrological data. Because of this, manufacturing systems face risks such as flawed factory site selection, disrupted supply routes, or unsafe autonomous vehicle navigation, data tampering in production logs, 278 counterfeit parts in supply chains, and a lack of real-time traceability. Hence, to manage the limitations of conventional terrain data storage and handling, this study proposes a blockchain-based framework to secure QGIS-processed terrain data, ensuring immutability and traceability for smart manufacturing applications. Blockchain distributed ledgers can permanently store high-resolution terrain data, minimize the chance of unintended alterations, and promote transparent, unrestricted collaboration. Using the country of the Republic of Mauritius as a case study toward tropical island states, this work demonstrated how elevation, slope, and aspect data extracted via QGIS can be securely stored and verified on a distributed ledger. Furthermore, this study incorporates an integration layer into the framework. The purpose of this integration layer is to enable real-time terrain alerts, smart contract-driven compliance checks, and to arrive at closed-loop feedback from IoT sensors. Thus, this proposed framework bridges blockchain-secured terrain data with manufacturing execution systems (MES) and IoT-enabled logistics networks.

Seruwaia Rokolatu, Mansour Assaf, Bibhya Sharma

The global healthcare supply chain is experiencing increasing challenges with respect to maintaining the security of medications, adequate storage of medications, and identifying potential issues with medications that may pose a risk to patient safety. This chapter introduces a prototype called the 'Smarter, Safe Healthcare Supply Chain.' The system brings together fast telemetry (simulating 4G and 5G), edge computing, blockchain smart contracts, and explainable anomaly detection to help stop compromised medications from reaching patients. Included in the prototype's design are an IoT temperature and location data sensing simulator; an edge service that checks the signature of a device and executes "explainable" checks; and two smart contracts associated with device tracking and alerting. Tools like latency simulation, on-chain device tracking, device allowance (i.e., allowing only those devices that have been verified via smart contracts to access the network), and audit logs allow for the prototype to demonstrate how new technologies can enhance, accelerate, and streamline operations and build trust throughout the supply chain. Some of the key results of the prototype include faster-than-anticipated response times under 5G simulated conditions, successful verification of devices (both at the edge and enterprise-level) via smart contract(s), and accurate alerting developed based on a predefined set of rules. The framework upon which the prototype is built follows the principles of Zero Trust (e.g., NIST SP 800-207A, GSMA 5G IoT Guidelines, and use case-specific Healthcare Compliance Controls). Limitations exist within the prototype (such as being a single-node blockchain and the use of rule-based alerting versus leveraging full machine learning capabilities); however, it presents a viable operational model for practical application within a regulated supply chain (e.g., pharmaceuticals). Future work will include multi-party blockchain networks, evolving AI algorithms, and demonstrating full integration of the prototype into existing regulatory workflow(s).

Md. Safaet Hossain, Mohammad Shakibul Hasan Sakib, Md. Rayhan Ahmed Shis, Sakib Ahmed · 5 authors

Modern food supply chains, particularly those involving essential commodities like rice, often suffer from major challenges such as product fraud, inefficient record-keeping, and a lack of consumer trust. Traditional centralized systems are prone to data tampering, limited transparency, and poor traceability, making it difficult to verify the authenticity and origin of goods. To address these issues, our research introduces TraceRoot, a blockchain-based traceability framework designed to enhance transparency, accountability, and trust in agricultural supply chains.TraceRoot leverages the immutability and decentralization of blockchain technology to maintain a secure, distributed ledger that records every transaction and movement of goods across the supply chain. Each stakeholder including farmers, distributors, retailers, and consumers has role-based access to authenticated data through a user-friendly interface. The framework integrates smart contracts to automate transactions and digital signatures to verify the integrity of the data being uploaded, minimizing the risk of human error or manipulation

I. Smid -Woelders

PrismEco is the showcase demonstration of the Prism Ecosystem. Where the other component demos each illustrate one capability in isolation, PrismEco shows the complete authentication triangle in a single flow: biometric authentication via WebAuthn, a Zero-Knowledge Proof generated in the browser, and NFC presence verification via a physical tag. This technical note follows a single user through the complete login flow on prismeco.globalsecurity.nu. At each step, it documents what the server receives and what it does not receive. The goal is to make visible what is structurally invisible by design: that a working authentication system can process a login without ever knowing who the user is. The three factors are verified independently and must all succeed for the session to open. No single factor is sufficient on its own. The combination is structurally resistant to remote attacks: an attacker would need to compromise biometrics, the device, and physical proximity simultaneously. The complete authentication triangle has been proven in a working PoC as of 12 June 2026. WebAuthn registration and login, ZKP generation and server-side verification (proven 10 June 2026), and NFC tap confirmation with RELAY_TOKEN verification (proven 12 June 2026) all function as an integrated flow on live infrastructure at prismeco.globalsecurity.nu. Screenshots in this document are taken from the live running demonstration. All claims are classified by status: proven in PoC, follows from open standard, or architectural design choice. Part of the Prism Ecosystem. Full technical architecture: The Prism Protocol, Invention Disclosure v20, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20029291.

Adaora. A, Obayi, Caroline Asogwa, Blessing .C. Uzo

This study investigates traditional health care delivery systems to eliminate current inefficiencies by creating a decentralized appointment and referral management system using Web 3.0 technology, blockchain, smart contracts, and Decentralized Identity (DID) compatible with scalable cloud storage. In a series of multi-agent simulations run on the Ethereum and Polygon Testnets, the performance of the system under simulated high-load traffic scenarios was tested. The simulation results showed consistent transaction latencies (285 ms average), high throughput rates (34 appointments per second), and low errors rates (1.4%). Another innovation of this study was the development of a hybrid architecture that enables the storage of cryptographic hashes associated with medical records on-chain, while keeping patient data encrypted on off-chain servers. This allows the immutability and auditability of the data while still maintaining compliance with GDPR and HIPAA regulations by enabling patient data to be deleted from the system entirely. As a result, this system was significantly more secure, transparent, and operationally efficient compared to current centralized systems. These findings confirm and support the potential of decentralized technologies for Scalable, Trustworthy Medical Service Delivery of the Data.

Mays Munqith Salman, Mohammed Falih AL-Gailani

No abstract is available for this record.

Balaji Gopalan, Vijaya G S, Ravishankar Ulle

The integration of smart contracts is transforming logistics and supply chain management (LSCM) by improving transparency, visibility, and accountability. This study examines how automated digital agreements and secure nutritional labeling enhance credibility and safety in the food industry. Using encrypted ledgers and records, smart contracts help address challenges such as counterfeit products, fraudulent labeling, and ethical violations. The study aimed to evaluate smart contracts as a strategic tool for managing information throughout a food product’s lifecycle, with emphasis on sustainability and ethical LSCM practices. A quantitative methodology was used, collecting survey data from 130 urban consumers in India who shop both online and offline. The survey captured consumer views on ethical consumption, organic versus processed foods, eco-friendly packaging, and pricing transparency. Findings show that although smart contracts are still emerging in the food sector, they can address major systemic issues. By defining accountability measures, these contracts can align societal well-being with industrial efficiency. This paper contributes to supply chain management research by highlighting the shift toward distributed information systems and emphasizing the importance of smart contracts in creating a transparent, ethical, and safe food supply chain for modern consumers.

Ankit Sitaula, Ashraf Uddin, John Ayoade, Nam H. Chu · 5 authors

Counterfeit and unsafe medicines pose significant risks to patient safety and undermine trust in healthcare systems. This paper presents ACTMeds, a blockchain-supported pharmaceutical traceability and recall platform that considers pharmaceutical supply chain requirements and public health operational needs relevant to the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The system integrates Ethereum smart contracts, developed using Ganache, with a React-based web application providing regulator, operator, pharmacy, and auditor interfaces, alongside a public verification portal leveraging QR and GS1 barcodes. In addition, role-based access control is enforced across the medicine lifecycle, including manufacture, custody transfer, dispensing, and recall, with immutable on-chain events generated to support auditability and accountability. To balance transparency with confidentiality, the platform prototypes a zero-knowledge (ZK) recall mechanism in which regulators can cryptographically prove that recall conditions meet predefined policy requirements without disclosing sensitive incident details. Threat modeling was conducted using the STRIDE framework, and security evaluation combined static application security testing (Solhint and ESLint) and dynamic testing. The paper further discusses deployment options, cost considerations, ZK recall performance analysis, ethical implications, and future enhancements. Security testing validated the platform’s resilience, with no high-severity vulnerabilities identified and medium-severity issues related to HTTP security headers addressed. The results indicate that a regulator-led, privacy-preserving, tamper-evident ledger can improve medicine authenticity verification and recall responsiveness while maintaining compliance and data protection obligations.

Hüseyin Bodur

This study proposes a lightweight Zero-Knowledge authentication model supported by QR codes. The approach is based on the Schnorr authentication protocol and provides an additional security layer against replay attacks through nonce and timestamp mechanisms. The proof data generated by the prover is embedded within a QR code and transmitted to the verifier. Thus, the system enables verification of knowledge of the secret key without revealing it. Simulation results show that proof generation and verification times under a 256-bit security level are in the millisecond range. Additionally, the proof size remains constant at approximately 0.5 KB, making it suitable for practical applications in terms of QR code capacity. The findings indicate that the proposed model is applicable in mobile and low-resource systems in terms of both security and performance.

Sidhardh G S, M Nandhana Sunil, Rishika Swapna Nair, Shanu Sudhakaran · 5 authors

Ensuring the authenticity and safety of food products has become a major global concern due to increasing cases of food fraud, mislabelling, and contamination. Traditional traceability systems are often centralized, lack transparency, and are vulnerable to data tampering, making it difficult to accurately track product origin and movement. To address these issues, this project proposes a blockchain-based food origin traceability system that uses smart contracts and a distributed ledger to securely record product information at every stage of the supply chain. Stakeholders record key data such as origin, processing, and transportation details, ensuring transparency, immutability, and reliable verification. The system also incorporates allergen traceability and quality verification mechanisms to enhance product safety. By improving transparency, reducing fraud, enabling faster recalls, and supporting regulatory compliance, the system provides a scalable solution for food safety and traceability while promoting better coordination, reducing dependency on intermediaries, and supporting informed decision-making across the supply chain.

B Mounika, J Yugesh, J Varsha, K Sanjay

Counterfeit products pose a serious threat to global supply chains, resulting in economic losses, brand reputation damage, and consumer safety risks. Traditional centralized authentication systems are vulnerable to data tampering, lack transparency, and fail to provide end-to-end traceability. This paper proposes a blockchain-based product authentication framework that ensures secure, transparent, and tamper-proof tracking of products across the supply chain. The system integrates QR-code tagging, smart contracts, distributed ledger technology, and decentralized verification mechanisms to prevent counterfeit infiltration. Experimental evaluation demonstrates improved traceability accuracy, reduced verification time, and enhanced trust among stakeholders compared to conventional centralized databases. The proposed framework provides a scalable and secure solution for real-time product verification and counterfeit elimination.

T. Mohana, P. Bhanuchand, R Meghanadh, CH . Yashwanth · 5 authors

Abstract - The rapid expansion of global supply chains has intensified the prevalence of counterfeit products, posing significant risks to consumer safety and brand credibility. Conventional identification mechanisms, including QR codes and RFID systems, suffer from vulnerabilities such as duplication, limited transparency, and high implementation costs. This paper presents a decentralized architecture leveraging blockchain technology integrated with cryptographic verification techniques to ensure secure product authentication and traceability. The proposed system records each transaction within an immutable distributed ledger, enabling transparent and tamper-resistant data management. Smart contracts facilitate automated validation of product information across different supply chain stages, from manufacturing to end-user verification. Additionally, QR code integration provides a user-friendly interface for authenticity checks. Experimental analysis demonstrates enhanced reliability, improved transparency, and effective counterfeit detection compared to traditional approaches. The framework offers a scalable and trustworthy solution for securing modern supply chain ecosystems against fraudulent activities. Key Words: Blockchain, Counterfeit Detection, Supply Chain Security, Cryptographic Verification, Smart, Contracts, Decentralized Architecture, Product Traceability, QR Code Authentication, Distributed, Ledger Technology

I. Smid -Woelders

The Prism Protocol is a privacy-native authentication and identity architecture in which a user can prove attributes or authentication state without directly revealing their identity to the server. It combines WebAuthn (W3C Level 3), Zero-Knowledge Proofs (Groth16 via circom/snarkjs), and NFC-based physical presence verification into a single coherent protocol stack. The core mechanism is a triangular key derivation model: biometric authentication (WebAuthn), a device-bound private key (FIDO2 Secure Enclave), and a time-limited NFC nonce via a passive tag (card, ring, sticker; NFC ISO 14443) jointly produce an ephemeral key. In v18, a working ZKP implementation is demonstrated: an age-threshold circuit proves that a user meets a criterion without the server ever receiving the attribute value. Verification is performed server-side via snarkjs.groth16.verify(). Within the demonstrated implementation flow, the server receives no name, no biometric data, no persistent identifier, and no direct attribute value. Sessions are designed to be unlinkable from the server perspective at the protocol level; timing and metadata correlation are addressed in the threat model as a separate concern. A working proof-of-concept was demonstrated on 25 April 2026 at prismpass.globalsecurity.nu. The broader ecosystem (PrismPass, PrismID, PrismShield, PrismAdd, PrismChat, PrismAir, PrismGuard, PrismHash, PrismWipe, PrismGate) is documented in this Invention Disclosure. The protocol introduces no novel cryptographic primitives; its novelty lies in the specific architectural combination, orchestration model, and protocol-class definition addressing thirteen authentication questions not simultaneously addressed by existing systems. Note: The post-quantum migration path (ML-KEM-768, ML-DSA-65) is documented as a formal architectural claim and forward-compatibility design decision. It describes the intended migration route, not a currently implemented feature. The working implementation uses ECDH, ECDSA, AES-256-GCM and Groth16. The protocol is designed for session unlinkability: the server receives only a cryptographic proof of validity, never a persistent identifier, name, or behavioural trace. This addresses the unlinkability gap identified in the W3C Digital Credentials API and the EUDI Wallet architecture as an unresolved open problem. Author: I. Smid-Woelders, independent inventor, Zwolle, Netherlands. First documented: 25 April 2026. Contact: contact@globalsecurity.nu

Smid-Woelders, I.

The Prism Protocol is a privacy-native authentication and identity architecture in which a user can prove attributes or authentication state without directly revealing their identity to the server. It combines WebAuthn (W3C Level 3), Zero-Knowledge Proofs (Groth16 via circom/snarkjs), and NFC-based physical presence verification into a single coherent protocol stack. The core mechanism is a triangular key derivation model: biometric authentication (WebAuthn), a device-bound private key (FIDO2 Secure Enclave), and a time-limited NFC nonce via a passive tag (card, ring, sticker; NFC ISO 14443) jointly produce an ephemeral key. In v18, a working ZKP implementation is demonstrated: an age-threshold circuit proves that a user meets a criterion without the server ever receiving the attribute value. Verification is performed server-side via snarkjs.groth16.verify(). Within the demonstrated implementation flow, the server receives no name, no biometric data, no persistent identifier, and no direct attribute value. Sessions are designed to be unlinkable from the server perspective at the protocol level; timing and metadata correlation are addressed in the threat model as a separate concern. A working proof-of-concept was demonstrated on 25 April 2026 at prismpass.globalsecurity.nu. The broader ecosystem (PrismPass, PrismID, PrismShield, PrismAdd, PrismChat, PrismAir, PrismGuard, PrismHash, PrismWipe, PrismGate) is documented in this Invention Disclosure. The protocol introduces no novel cryptographic primitives; its novelty lies in the specific architectural combination, orchestration model, and protocol-class definition addressing thirteen authentication questions not simultaneously addressed by existing systems. Note: The post-quantum migration path (ML-KEM-768, ML-DSA-65) is documented as a formal architectural claim and forward-compatibility design decision. It describes the intended migration route, not a currently implemented feature. The working implementation uses ECDH, ECDSA, AES-256-GCM and Groth16. The protocol is designed for session unlinkability: the server receives only a cryptographic proof of validity, never a persistent identifier, name, or behavioural trace. This addresses the unlinkability gap identified in the W3C Digital Credentials API and the EUDI Wallet architecture as an unresolved open problem. Author: I. Smid-Woelders, independent inventor, Zwolle, Netherlands. First documented: 25 April 2026. Contact: contact@globalsecurity.nu

S. Shahid, L.Venkata Jyothsna, KVR. Abhishek, Varanasi Vivek · 5 authors

Abstract - The healthcare supply chain faces challenges such as inefficient procurement, lack of transparency, counterfeit medicines, and poor tracking mechanisms. This paper proposes a blockchain-based solution integrating smart contracts and decentralized storage systems to enhance traceability, security, and efficiency. The system connects stakeholders including manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and healthcare providers through the Ethereum blockchain. Smart contracts automate transactions, while IPFS and Hyperledger Fabric ensure secure and decentralized storage. The proposed framework improves transparency, reduces fraud, and enhances communication across the supply chain. Experimental results demonstrate improved security, cost efficiency, and system reliability. Key Words: Blockchain Technology, Healthcare Supply Chain, Smart Contracts, Ethereum, Decentralized Storage, IPFS (InterPlanetary File System), Hyperledger Fabric, Supply Chain Management, Data Security, Traceability, Transparency, Counterfeit Drug Prevention, Distributed Ledger Technology

M. Katsiuba, V. Katsiuba, H. Nelasa, O. Harasymchuk · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

G. Prabakaran, Dharani Priya M, Jumana Fathima S, Keerthini R · 5 authors

The pharmaceutical supply chain is complex and often faces challenges such as lack of transparency, counterfeit medicines, and inefficient tracking. This project proposes a blockchain-based pharmaceutical supply chain management system using smart contracts to ensure secure and transparent operations. Each medicine batch is recorded on the blockchain with a unique ID, allowing all transactions from manufacturer to pharmacy to be tracked in a tamper- proof manner. The system also enables patients to verify the authenticity of medicines and detect counterfeit products. Additionally, a drug recall feature allows manufacturers to mark defective batches, preventing further distribution. By using blockchain technology, the proposed system improves traceability, enhances security, and ensures trust among all participants in the supply chain

SUBHADIP NANDI

A study of enhanced traceability, transparency, and compliance in the pharmaceutical supply chain ecosystem is suggested to be done using the present paper's proposal which is a combination of a distributed ledger and smart contract based system.The system as demanded keeps the entire history of a batch, custody transfers, and compliance events on a ledger that can be accessed by the big players only without the middle men.Also, it automates the task assigned to the smart contracts such as authorization, monitoring of the cold chain, and recalling of the products if they are found to be defected.The procedure develops the trust of all the stakeholders.

Karin Kandananond

Abstract Traceability is an essential practice to ensure transparency, authenticity, and regulatory compliance in modern agricultural supply chains, especially high-value agricultural products. Regarded as the king of fruits in Southeast Asia for its unique taste, texture, and aroma, durian dominates the market of exported fruit commodities. However, recurring issues such as fraudulent GAP numbers, mislabelled origins, premature harvesting, and product tampering undermine consumer trust and export credibility. To address these challenges, this study presents an integrated traceability architecture combining RFID, a MySQL database, an automated Node.js backend, and Ethereum-compatible smart contracts. The developed system enables automated ingestion of physical RFID data, secure on-chain recording via immutable ledger functions, and optional generation of ERC-721 NFTs as digital certificates. Empirical validation includes RFID read-rate testing, blockchain performance measurement, and gas usage analysis. Carton-level tagging, wherein a single RFID tag is attached to a carton rather than each individual fruit, significantly reduces per-durian blockchain cost. The results demonstrate that the proposed architecture is technically robust, flexible, economically scalable, and suitable for SME use in high-value or ultra-premium fresh-produce chains.

Sadoqat Jurayeva, Vokhid Juraev, Z.A. Abduazimova, Xamidilla Meliyev · 7 authors

This paper explores how Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) can enhance the privacy and security of decentralized supply chains. Although blockchain technology enhances supply chain transparency, it also reveals sensitive information, including supplier identities, pricing strategies, and transaction volumes. ZKPs offer a feasible approach in that subjects can authenticate data without revealing the underlying data, whilst keeping the information confidential and maintaining trust. In this study, the main performance indicators, including the time to verify a transaction (0.48 seconds), communication overhead (1.3 KB proof size), and privacy (95) in the ZKP-based system, are examined. ZKPs can enhance economic security by eliminating risks, such as industrial espionage and counterparty fraud, that can arise from publicly accessible data in historical blockchain systems. The performance of ZKP-enabled networks is also compared with that of traditional transparent blockchain systems. The major benefits are data privacy (95 % in ZKPs and 40 % in traditional systems) and scalability (80 % high and 60 % moderate). The paper also discusses how AI-based ZKP generation can speed up proof generation and automated compliance auditing to uphold regulatory compliance, including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Anti-Money Laundering (AML). By incorporating AI into the ZKP procedure, proof generation can be sped up, yielding significant improvements in efficiency. This study finds that ZKPs can provide an effective approach to decentralized supply chain security, privacy, efficiency, and regulatory compliance, thereby making global trade activities more secure, transparent, and efficient.