Universitas Indonesia, Sendrawan Tjhong, Rosa Agustina, Edmon Makarim · 6 authors
Inheritance laws regarding the transfer of digital property after someone’s death is a relatively new and evolving area of legal consideration. Inheritance laws were developed long before the widespread adoption of digital property, such as cryptocurrencies, non-fungible tokens (NFTs), online accounts, and other forms of digital property. Therefore, existing inheritance laws often lack clear guidance on how to handle the legal transfer of these digital assets upon the owner’s death. This article aims to analyze the legal concept of digital property to be inherited and provide solutions for current digital property inheritance issues from a notarial perspective. To conduct a thorough analysis on digital property inheritance law and how notaries should play a role in digital inheritance matters, this study employs a doctrinal legal analysis of current national and international laws and regulations pertaining to digital property succession; comparative legislative studies examining proposed policies across jurisdictions to garner real-world insights into the operational challenges, emerging practices, and pragmatic considerations surrounding notary participation in digital inheritance procedures. Updating inheritance laws to address the transfer of digital property is crucial in order to protect the rights and interests of individuals, promoting legal certainty, and ensuring that these valuable assets are properly accounted for and transferred to rightful heirs or beneficiaries. The law of property in the Indonesian Civil Code needs to be immediately adjusted to the development of the digitalization era. This article suggests optimizing the role of notaries to create authentic deeds on digital property inheritance.
This research aims to examine the regulatory compliance aspects of smart contracts within the Indonesian legal system using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach. The review focuses on how smart contracts are recognized and regulated within Indonesia’s legal framework, the challenges related to consumer protection, their compatibility with traditional contract principles, and comparisons with international regulatory standards. From a total of 158 relevant studies, 50 articles were selected based on multi-layered search strategies, citation chaining, and relevance scoring. The findings reveal that while Indonesia has established a normative legal basis for recognizing electronic contracts, significant gaps persist in enforcement, legal clarity, and consumer protection. The implications of this review highlight the need for regulatory reform, the standardization of legal frameworks, and the integration of interdisciplinary approaches to secure the application of smart contracts within Indonesia’s growing digital economy.
Purpose: To examine and critically analyze the U.S. Patent 10,992,478 B2, which introduces a blockchain-based digital identity management system. It aims to assess the patent’s technical features, innovative claims, and potential applications in enhancing security, privacy, and user control in identity verification processes. Furthermore, the study seeks to contextualize the invention within the broader landscape of blockchain innovations, evaluating its significance, competitive advantages, and implications for future digital identity solutions. Methodology: The study uses an exploratory qualitative research design to gather and analyze data on the selected patent, sourcing information through keyword-based searches on platforms like Google Search, Google Patent Search, Google Scholar, and AI-powered GPT models. The collected data was systematically curated, organized, and interpreted to align with the research objectives. Analytical frameworks such as SWOC and ABCD/ABCDEF were applied to generate structured insights into the patent’s technological, strategic, and commercial dimensions. Results & Analysis: The results of the analysis reveal that U.S. Patent 10,992,478 B2 offers a robust framework for secure, decentralized digital identity management leveraging blockchain’s immutability and distributed ledger capabilities. The technical assessment highlights the system’s ability to minimize identity fraud, enhance user control over personal data, and enable interoperability across different platforms and services. Comparative analysis with existing solutions shows that the patented design stands out for its comprehensive security architecture, multi-factor authentication integration, and potential scalability in real-world applications. Originality & Values: The originality of this study lies in its focused examination of a specific granted patent, U.S. Patent 10,992,478 B2, within the niche yet rapidly evolving domain of blockchain-enabled digital identity management. By dissecting its technical claims, architectural innovations, and practical implications, the article offers a unique lens for understanding how patented blockchain solutions can redefine identity verification. The value of this work is in providing scholars, industry practitioners, and policymakers with actionable insights into the patent’s potential to influence secure digital ecosystems and future technological developments. Type of Paper: Case Study-based Exploratory Research.
A smart contract is a computer protocol for creating or improving a contract. A smart contract allows for the creation of valid transactions without the need for an intermediary. With the advent of blockchain technology, the idea of smart contracts has received more attention and has found a wide range of applications. Privacy, digital assets, and data encryption are three important factors in the benefit of blockchain-based smart contracts. This article examines the impact of a blockchain-based approach on smart contracts in the development of e-commerce using data mining. The research method is descriptive with a data mining approach and regression computation, decision trees, and neural networks. The main objective of this research is to determine the impact of blockchain on smart contracts in the development of e-commerce using data mining. The predictive power of smart contracts based on blockchain is 55%, which shows a level higher than 0.5. Therefore it can be said that the proposed model has appropriate predictive power for examining smart contracts.
Gesa Bimantara, Tri Astuti Handayani, M. Aqiel Alam
This study examines the legal status and implications of Bitcoin ownership as a medium of exchange within Indonesia's evolving digital financial system. In light of persistent regulatory ambiguity, the research seeks to understand how legal uncertainty shapes the use and recognition of Bitcoin as a transactional asset. Employing a qualitative socio-legal approach, the study integrates doctrinal legal analysis with empirical findings obtained from in-depth interviews with cryptocurrency users, legal scholars, and financial regulators. The findings reveal that Bitcoin ownership in Indonesia lacks formal legal recognition, as there is no existing state-sanctioned registration system or institutional mechanism to validate cryptographic ownership. Instead, the private key remains the only accepted evidence of control and possession, creating a decentralized system of ownership that operates independently from conventional legal doctrines. Despite regulatory restrictions, Bitcoin continues to be used in informal peer-to-peer transactions, primarily driven by user preferences for privacy, decentralization, and efficiency. This disconnect between legal structures and technological realities generates vulnerabilities for users, particularly in cases involving fraud, inheritance, taxation, or contractual disputes, where no formal recourse exists. The research concludes that Indonesia’s legal framework remains ill-equipped to handle the complexities of decentralized financial assets, posing challenges to legal enforceability and consumer protection. The study recommends the establishment of a voluntary, state-recognized digital asset registration system, along with capacity-building initiatives for regulators. These measures aim to enhance legal certainty, bridge institutional gaps, and support the integration of blockchain-based assets into Indonesia’s formal financial and legal ecosystem.
The rapid evolution of InsurTech is transforming the insurance industry through the integration of blockchain technology and smart contracts. This study evaluates how blockchain’s decentralized, transparent, and tamper-resistant ledger enhances policyholder trust while smart contracts automate claims processing, reducing fraud, administrative costs, and processing delays. By leveraging distributed ledger technology (DLT), insurers can ensure secure data sharing, streamline underwriting, and enable real-time claim settlements with greater accuracy and efficiency. The research explores key challenges, including regulatory compliance, scalability, and interoperability, while highlighting innovative use cases that demonstrate the potential of blockchain-driven insurance solutions. Additionally, ethical considerations and the role of AI in enhancing blockchain-based automation are discussed. The study concludes that blockchain and smart contracts have the potential to revolutionize InsurTech by improving operational efficiency, fostering transparency, and strengthening trust between insurers and policyholders in an increasingly digital insurance ecosystem.
Did you ever wonder whether cryptocurrencies are allowed in Egypt? Or which rights token holders have in case of an insolvency under US law? Or what is the tax treatment of Bitcoin in France? This is the first book to address these questions and others in a comprehensive manner. Twenty-six reporters describe the rules of their national laws as applying to the new phenomena, from regulatory to private law, including conflict of laws. The findings are then summarised by two experts. The wide array of information provided in this book will help the reader navigate the global labyrinth of blockchain laws.
Este artigo busca estudar a natureza jurídica dos non-fungible nokens (NFTs) à luz do direito brasileiro. Para isso, será utilizado como exemplo o projeto Web3 da marca de bebidas alcoólicas Campari, intitulado The Campari Blockchain. Inicialmente, serão introduzidos alguns conceitos fundamentais do universo cripto, como criptomoeda, blockchain, NFT e contratos inteligentes, todos necessários para que seja possível estudar o objeto principal do artigo. Considerando as controvérsias que permeiam esse segmento de mercado, será feita menção a alguns episódios notáveis de fraudes perpetuadas com criptomoedas e de problemas atinentes a todos esses conceitos. Uma vez que estes sejam estabelecidos, será abordada a relação entre NFTs e arte digital, a qual, apesar de comum, não é estritamente necessária, sendo utilizado o exemplo do projeto The Campari Blockchain para que seja possível responder ao questionamento do artigo, em especial mediante análise dos termos de uso do projeto. A conclusão a que se chega é que a aquisição de um NFT não garante a propriedade da obra indicada no token, que é meramente uma representação da obra em questão na blockchain, feita mediante um código computacional. Os direitos assegurados pelo NFT adquirido dependerão dos termos de uso ou contrato de aquisição, documentos essenciais para adquirentes terem certeza do que estão ganhando com esse bem. O NFT, em realidade, é apenas um código computacional, de forma que pode ser qualificado como um bem móvel, infungível, imaterial, indivisível e singular, pela legislação brasileira. Pela Lei de Direitos Autorais, todavia, ele não possui proteção de direitos autorais, por ser um aproveitamento industrial ou comercial das ideias contidas na obra. O artigo finaliza com um aviso de cautela quanto ao entusiasmo quanto às inovações tecnológicas recentes, que devem ser implementadas e utilizadas quando se verificar ganhos reais de eficiência e outros benefícios para as partes envolvidas, não havendo razão para substituir estruturas e institutos sólidos por alternativas que, na prática, não são melhores (no jargão popular, “trocar seis por meia dúzia”).
Blockchain is a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) which supports cryptocurrencies, Decentralized finance (DeFi) is a blockchain-based financial infrastructure, the term generally refers to an open, permissionless, and highly interoperable protocol stack built on public smart contract platforms, such as the Ethereum blockchain. DeFi does not rely on intermediaries and centralized institutions. Instead, it is based on open protocols and decentralized applications (Dapps). Considering that there are many digital coins, stablecoins and recently the advent of central bank digital currencies (CBDCs by Central Banks) and tokenized assets it is important to observe that these protocols may interact among themselves. These IT protocols interactions may be complex and there should be effective IT governance frameworks to guide points like interoperability and interconvertibility of digital assets based on DLTs protocols. IT governance framework based on these technologies is still a challenge in the literature. Considering these points, this paper seeks to explore literature through a Systematic Literature Review methodology in order to find the state of the art about this theme. Results show that Literature explore DLT governance as a whole, including information technology (IT) aspects. However, there is a lack in the literature about IT governance for interoperability and interconvertibility among complex DLT protocols interactions. Discussions, future research, limiting factors and conclusions are fully stated. Keywords: Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), IT Governance, Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC), Tokenization, Decentralized Finance (DeFi).
O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a diferença entre os Smart Contracts e os Smart Legal Contracts, seus requisitos de validade e compreensão quanto à sua existência e aplicação. Neste sentido, pretende-se evidenciar o conceito atualmente atribuído a Smart Contract e Smart Legal Contract, qual sua natureza. Até pouco tempo atrás estávamos acostumados a utilizar apenas documentos firmados manualmente pelas partes, no entanto, em decorrência do desenvolvimento da sociedade, que foi abruptamente acelerado no período pandêmico, processos como assinaturas eletrônicas e digitais em documentos tornaram-se corriqueiros, com o intuito de facilitar as operações, sem deixar de atribuir validade e segurança jurídica às transações comerciais. Sendo assim, podem os Smart Legal Contracts ser equiparados a tais procedimentos em questões de inovação e eficiência? As fontes de pesquisa utilizadas serão: atos normativos, contratos e doutrina nacional e estrangeira que verse sobre o tema.
A ascensão da Internet e as novas tecnologias desenvolvidas nas últimas décadas têm transformado a vida em sociedade, digitalizando diversos processos e resultando na redução da distância física entre coisas e pessoas. O comércio internacional é uma das áreas que lida com essas transformações, sendo o Direito Internacional a esfera responsável por atualizar suas regras. Inserido nas tecnologias de registro distribuído e blockchain, a nova modalidade de contratos, chamada de smart contracts, surge como ferramenta revolucionária capaz de reorganizar a estrutura comercial internacional. Apesar de já serem utilizados com diversos intuitos na atualidade, esses contratos inteligentes ainda implicam em questões regulamentárias, pois envolvem toda uma estrutura interdisciplinar que precisa ser compreendida em profundidade. Nesse cenário, a presente pesquisa tem como objetivo geral desenvolver uma abordagem inovadora e eficaz para a otimização da escolha da lei aplicável aos smart contracts no comércio internacional. Como objetivos específicos, procurou-se registrar a evolução do comércio internacional e sua importância; discorrer sobre a ascensão da Internet e das novas tecnologias no comércio internacional; especificar as novas formas de comércio e diferenciar os contratos eletrônicos dos inteligentes; conceituar as tecnologias de registro distribuído e blockchain; enunciar os conceitos e aplicabilidade dos smart contracts; analisar se eles trazem segurança jurídica; definir a importância da harmonização e uniformização na escolha da lei aplicável aos smart contracts; detalhar as perspectivas do Instituto Internacional para a Unificação do Direito Privado - UNIDROIT e a Comissão das Nações Unidas para o Direito Comercial Internacional - UNCITRAL sobre o tema; para, por fim, oferecer critérios de indicação de lei aplicável. A pesquisa é exploratória e descritiva com abordagem qualitativa, a partir de levantamento bibliográfico e documental, de acordo com o método dedutivo. Conclui- se que a melhor forma de propiciar a escolha de lei aplicável aos smart contracts se dá através da sugestão do modelo de jurisdição em duas camadas voltado para os smart contracts, acoplando a vertente autônoma do código e a defesa da criação de um novo documento uniformizado.
Esta monografía aborda inicialmente las problemáticas de implementar Smart Contracts en transacciones inmobiliarias, destacando obstáculos como las estructuras centralizadas. Se ofrece una visión general de los Smart Contracts, incluyendo su definición, configuración y su relación con la tecnología Blockchain, que proporciona transparencia y seguridad en las transacciones. Se examina el marco normativo internacional aplicable a los Smart Contracts en operaciones de compraventa de inmuebles, destacando la importancia del principio lex rei sitae y las convenciones de las Naciones Unidas. Los fundamentos jurídicos para la aplicación de Smart Contracts se basan en principios como la libertad contractual y la neutralidad tecnológica, así como en elementos de validez en el Civil Law como la capacidad, objeto y causa, y el consentimiento. Finalmente, se concluye que la implementación de Smart Contracts en transacciones inmobiliarias ofrece beneficios como eficiencia, seguridad y transparencia, siempre que se aborden los desafíos legales y técnicos de manera integral.
Blockchain technology, with its characteristics of decentralization, immutability, and transparency, has introduced an unprecedented trust mechanism to judicial record-keeping. Amid challenges faced by traditional methods, such as vulnerability to tampering and difficulties in tracing, blockchain ensures the authenticity and integrity of evidence through distributed ledgers, significantly enhancing the credibility of legal evidence and judicial efficiency. As blockchain applications in judicial record-keeping advance, issues including ambiguous review standards, lack of industry regulations, concerns over technology maturity and security, as well as inadequate public awareness, have emerged as areas that cannot be overlooked. Looking forward, blockchainbased judicial record-keeping will progress from isolated implementations towards integration across the entire judicial system chain. Efforts should be directed towards establishing review procedures and recognition standards tailored for blockchain records, fostering a unified deposition platform and standards, intensifying talent cultivation and education, refining evidence examination processes, and advocating for the development of new evidence rules that accommodate the unique attributes of blockchain, thereby promoting justice and efficiency in the judiciary.
The increasingly massive use of the internet is now affecting the economic world which is characterized by the birth of E-Commerce. E-Commerce mechanism that does not brings together sellers and buyers directly, this raises a variety of problems on the subjective and objective terms of the sale and purchase agreement. Smart Contracts are actually different from conventional contracts written on paper. They are also different from electronic contracts. A clause in the agreement, which takes the form of programming code, requires blockchain as a distributed storage technology, which sets them apart. In addition, Smart Contracts serve to execute contracts automatically. Therefore, the article aims to analyze the advantages of Smart Contracts compared to conventional contracts and how the validity of using smart contracts in Indonesian law, and why business transactions in Indonesia should start using smart contracts. The result obtained is that the use of Smart Contracts are completely automated and rely on software logic, making them transparent and visible to all parties involved. The use of Smart Contract in buying and selling transactions is considered very important considering the advantages in terms of security, verification, changes in the contents of the agreement, and evidentiary power. As for Indonesian law, the use of Smart Contracts is permissible as long as it does not violate the validity of the agreement as stated in the Civil Code. The use of Smart Contracts offer several advantages over traditional contracts, including trasparency, autonomy, speed, accuracy, security, and savings.
Os smart contracts são códigos de computador que possuem diversas semelhanças com os contratos, todavia, se distinguem em razão de serem autoexecutáveis, podendo inclusive serem estruturados de forma descentralizada, logo, sendo operados por meio do sistema de uma blockchain. Além disso, distinguem-se dos ricardians contracts, pois, ao contrário destes, os smart contracts são criados sem a prévia validação da teoria do Direito Negocial. Deste modo, o problema surge em decorrência da criação do smart contract, que indubitavelmente traz o questionamento de sua compatibilidade com a teoria do Direito Negocial, em razão de seu caráter peculiar e inovador. Portanto, indaga-se, tal inovação se trata de um negócio jurídico sui generis ou de uma evolução do contrato? Tem-se como hipótese, que os smart contracts são compatíveis com a teoria do Direito Negocial, sendo considerados como uma evolução do contrato, haja vista que podem preencher os pressupostos e requisitos da teoria Contratual. Desta forma, o presente estudo pretende demonstrar a compatibilidade dos smart contracts com a teoria do Direito Negocial, sendo estes considerados como uma evolução dos contratos. No tocante ao método de abordagem, será utilizado o método dedutivo, partindo de uma hipótese que é considerada como verdadeira e, a partir disso, aplicando regras de inferência lógica, proveniente de premissas gerais para premissas específicas, de modo a verificar a hipótese posta. Como método de procedimento será utilizado o modelo prático normativo, por meio da análise bibliográfica e documental. A pesquisa insere-se no Mestrado em Direito Negocial e na linha de pesquisa sobre Relações Negociais no Direito Privado, na medida em que os smart contracts dizem respeito a relações negociais no âmbito entre particulares. Ao final, tem-se como expectativa que os smart contracts sejam verificados como compatíveis com a teoria do Direito Negocial, sendo considerados como uma evolução dos contratos, em razão da possibilidade de estarem consoantes à Teoria Contratual. Tal expectativa traz grandes contribuição para a área do direito negocial, haja vista que os contratos evoluem com a sociedade e o uso do smart contract trará como consequência grande confiabilidade aos contratantes em razão da tecnologia da blockchain, que é descentralizada e permite a autoexecução dos contratos sem qualquer intervenção humana
This article explores the concept of blockchain and its applications in customs operations, focusing on its ability to enhance efficiency, security, and transparency. The key features of blockchain, including decentralization, transparency, security, and immutability, are highlighted. The applications of blockchain in customs are discussed, including supply chain traceability, smart contracts, trade finance and payments, risk management and compliance, and intellectual property rights protection. The abstract concludes by emphasizing the transformative potential of blockchain in streamlining customs processes, mitigating risks, combating fraud, and fostering international trade with greater trust and efficiency
With the emergence of the innovative blockchain technology in 2008, several notes emerged about the potential use of this technology for other areas beyond simple financial transactions. As will be shown, this technology has been promising to be increasingly useful to solve, in a practical way, several problems in society. In one of these utilities, smart contracts emerged, which are being studied for practical use in contract law, which is the justification for this study. Therefore, the present study, made with bibliographic reviews, laws and doctrines, proposes to examine whether it would be legally viable to apply smart contracts in business contract law. This area was specifically chosen due to its peculiarities, the technological advance of the market and the rapid absorption of new technologies that make it the most prone to this experimentation. Due to this, this area proves to be the most suitable for testing the use of a smart contract. However, there are still some challenges and issues for the implementation of smart contracts in the legal field, such as their validity in the factual-legal plan, since they are contracts created and executed exclusively in the digital environment. In this way, new challenges arise for legal professionals who will need to adapt themselves professionally to these new technologies. Finally, we will analyze both the positive and negative points of using this new technology and your application.
In today's technological world, a large number of different types of agreements are made and electronic data interchange (Electronic Data Interchange - EDI) is an information exchange communication technology and is an alternative to paper-based communication. While the contract is drawn up for the parties involved in the transaction, the information in the "fine print" is provided, the transaction is developed, the software and the confirmation of the transaction make the user partially accessible to the information that may be valuable or confidential to him. Actions carried out through the software can in some cases be potentially dangerous, these reasons can be: improper protection of information, the possibility of evading sanctions due to the interpretation and non-fulfillment of the agreement made by the parties. Electronic means of payment leave some electronic traces and may become available to the interested party. Most consumers do not know if their names are associated with their purchases in databases, and significant portions of these transactions may be subject to processing and, more importantly, making the information public. Therefore, great importance is attached to data security and anonymity. This approach is offered by the decentralized environment-blockchain technology and the smart-contract computer transaction protocol integrated into it. Smart contracts are the basis of the Decentralized Finance (DeFi) industry, and because they do not require the involvement of third parties, they become a very cheap, desirable, fast and flexible system. In the NFT industry, they are trying their best to implement smart contracts in projects. Parties can rely on tamper-proof technology that controls the actions of the smart contract code so that processes are carried out automatically; This is how the contract code is practically enforced. This form of practical enforcement is achieved when all necessary actions are fully implemented in a computer program or technological environment.
This work represents a study aimed at exploring the relationship between Tax Compliance and the distributed ledger technology known as "Blockchain," without fully exhausting the subject matter. The main objective is to clarify and demonstrate the potential uses of Blockchain technology in facilitating corporate tax compliance. The anticipated potentials of this technology are just as significant as the possibilities it offers for tax authorities in terms of monitoring tax collection, which will also be addressed.
 The study adopts an inductive method and relies on research conducted through bibliographic and jurisprudential sources, both in physical and digital formats. The research is justified by the revolutionary potential that Blockchain technology holds for tax compliance activities. The hypothesis guiding this research is that Blockchain technology can be effectively and disruptively applied in the field of Tax Compliance.
 Through a thorough analysis of basic concepts related to Blockchain technology, this study reaches the conclusion that the hypothesis is valid. It identifies various fiscal issues that can benefit from the use of this technology and presents concrete cases where it is already being implemented in Brazil. Furthermore, the study explores potential applications of Blockchain technology in Tax Compliance based on research and publications by leading accounting and tax auditing firms worldwide.
 The topic addressed in this study is highly relevant and timely, as the practical possibilities of Blockchain technology are just beginning to emerge. Recent developments, such as the launch of Blockchain systems by Brazil's tax authorities, further emphasize the importance and timeliness of this research.
 In conclusion, this study aims to contribute to the understanding of the potential uses of Blockchain technology in the context of Tax Compliance. It highlights its disruptive potential and offers insights into how this technology can transform the routines of tax professionals in the coming years.
As transações financeiras que acontecem na Internet se garantem a partir do mesmo tipo de garantia utilizado por sistemas financeiros tradicionais. Assim, em cada transação se tem o regulamento sendo realizado por órgãos que fazem parte do sistema ou instituições financeiras. Porém, o número de transações e seu dimensionamento tem prejuízo por conta dos considerados terceiros de confiança, não conseguindo abandonar a mediação entre disputas e partes com interesse. Dessa maneira o objetivo do presente estudo é o de elucidar os desafios pertinentes a aplicação dos smart contracts. A metodologia corresponde à técnica de pesquisa utilizada em trabalhos acadêmicos. Em suma, a conclusão é que os smart contracts não são viáveis nos termos e infraestrutura técnica existentes, e se houver um contrato, haverá penalidades por violar a autonomia privada e a incapacidade de exercer direitos previstos em lei