This study aims to examine and analyze the validity of agreements that use cryptocurrency as a means of payment, as well as the legality of asset ownership arising from transactions involving cryptocurrency-based payments in Indonesia. This research employs a normative legal research method using statutory and conceptual approaches. The results demonstrate that agreements utilizing cryptocurrency as a means of payment are null and void *ab initio* because they fail to satisfy the objective requirement of a lawful cause, as stipulated in Article 21 of Law Number 7 of 2011 on Currency, which mandates the use of the Indonesian Rupiah for all payment transactions conducted within the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. Furthermore, the legal status of assets transferred under agreements that use cryptocurrency as a means of payment is not recognized under the prevailing legal framework. Consequently, such assets do not receive legal protection, and in the event of a dispute, ownership rights over the object of the agreement shall revert to the original lawful owner.
Kemajuan pesat teknologi digital telah mendorong perkembangan ekosistem investasi mata uang kripto di Indonesia, sekaligus memicu maraknya penipuan investasi kripto yang belum ditangani secara memadai melalui instrumen hukum pidana positif. Artikel ini bertujuan menganalisis kekosongan norma dalam penanganan tindak pidana penipuan investasi kripto dari perspektif hukum pidana positif Indonesia dan hukum pidana Islam. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif dengan pendekatan perundang-undangan, konseptual, dan komparatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa KUHP, Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik (UU ITE), serta Undang-Undang Pengembangan dan Penguatan Sektor Keuangan (UU P2SK) masih memiliki kesenjangan normatif karena belum dirancang untuk mengakomodasi karakteristik khusus kejahatan kripto, seperti desentralisasi, anonimitas pelaku, sifat lintas batas, volatilitas tinggi, dan ketidakjelasan status hukum aset kripto. Dalam perspektif fiqh jinayah, penipuan investasi kripto dikualifikasikan sebagai at-tadlis yang termasuk dalam kategori jarimah ta’zir, dengan prinsip sadd ad-dzari’ah sebagai dasar pencegahan. Analisis maqashid syariah menunjukkan bahwa penipuan investasi kripto mengancam hifzh al-mal (perlindungan harta), sehingga nilai-nilai Islam dapat ditempatkan sebagai rechtsidee dalam mengisi kekosongan hukum. Sebagai ius constituendum, penelitian ini merekomendasikan pembentukan undang-undang khusus mengenai kejahatan aset digital yang mengatur penipuan kripto, sanksi ta’zir yang berorientasi pada restitusi bagi korban, mekanisme pembuktian berbasis forensik blockchain, serta penguatan kerja sama internasional.
The development of blockchain technology has given rise to the Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO), a new business organizational model that operates through smart contracts in a decentralized manner, without a conventional management structure. The existence of DAOs has not been accommodated in the Indonesian corporate legal system, creating a legal vacuum regarding legal subject status, accountability, legal standing, taxation, and dispute resolution. This study aims to analyze the characteristics of DAOs from a corporate law perspective and the urgency of convergence between corporate law and blockchain technology in its regulation in Indonesia. The study employs a normative juridical method with statutory, conceptual, and comparative approaches. The results indicate the need for regulations that recognize and regulate DAOs as digital business entities to achieve legal certainty, legal protection, and a sustainable digital investment climate.
Rahmat, Agus Surono, Agung Iriantoro, Maslihati Nur Hidayati
The digital transformation of land administration in Indonesia has accelerated the adoption of electronic land certificates as an instrument for improving administrative efficiency, data security, and legal certainty. This study examines the legal status of electronic land certificates within Indonesia’s national land law system and identifies the principal legal, institutional, governance, and technological challenges affecting their implementation. Employing a qualitative descriptive design with a normative juridical approach, the study analyzes the Basic Agrarian Law, the Electronic Information and Transactions Law, regulations issued by the Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency (ATR/BPN), and relevant legal and scholarly literature. The findings demonstrate that electronic land certificates have a valid legal foundation and offer significant advantages, including faster administrative procedures, enhanced document authentication through certified electronic signatures, improved protection of land records, and reduced risks of physical loss and document forgery. Nevertheless, their implementation remains constrained by regulatory inconsistencies, institutional capacity gaps, unequal digital infrastructure, cybersecurity risks, data protection concerns, and potential disputes arising from electronic system failures. The study further identifies permissioned blockchain as a potential complementary mechanism for strengthening data integrity, traceability, and transactional transparency, provided that its adoption is supported by appropriate legal and institutional safeguards. This study contributes an integrated legal–institutional–technological framework for understanding electronic land administration and argues that regulatory harmonization, strengthened digital governance, institutional capacity development, and resilient cybersecurity infrastructure are essential to ensuring legal certainty and sustainable protection of land rights in Indonesia.
Muhammad Habibi, Mirza Agung Rahmatullah, S Huda, Achmad Alif Nurbani
Perkembangan ekonomi digital telah melahirkan berbagai bentuk aset digital, seperti cryptocurrency dan Non-Fungible Token (NFT), yang memiliki nilai ekonomi tinggi dan berpotensi dimanfaatkan dalam hubungan keperdataan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis kedudukan hukum cryptocurrency dan NFT dalam perspektif hukum perdata Indonesia sebagai objek hak kebendaan serta mengkaji pengaturan dan perlindungan hukum terhadap penggunaannya sebagai objek jaminan utang. Penelitian menggunakan metode hukum normatif dengan pendekatan perundang-undangan, konseptual, dan perbandingan. Data yang digunakan berupa bahan hukum primer, sekunder, dan tersier yang dianalisis secara kualitatif melalui metode yuridis normatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa cryptocurrency dan NFT secara konseptual memenuhi unsur sebagai benda bergerak tidak berwujud karena memiliki nilai ekonomi, dapat dimiliki, dikuasai, dialihkan, dan menjadi objek hubungan hukum. Kedua aset digital tersebut juga memenuhi persyaratan dasar sebagai objek jaminan utang. Akan tetapi, sistem hukum kebendaan dan hukum jaminan di Indonesia belum memberikan pengakuan dan pengaturan yang tegas mengenai kedudukan cryptocurrency dan NFT sebagai objek jaminan kebendaan. Ketiadaan regulasi khusus menimbulkan ketidakpastian hukum terkait mekanisme pengikatan, pendaftaran, penilaian, penguasaan, dan eksekusi aset digital. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan pembaruan hukum yang mampu mengakomodasi perkembangan teknologi digital guna memberikan kepastian hukum, perlindungan hukum, dan kemanfaatan bagi para pihak.
Regional decentralization within the framework of regional autonomy in Indonesia often creates a regulatory vacuum regarding the ownership and management of assets resulting from cooperation between the central and regional governments. This study aims to analyze the provisions of Law No. 23 of 2014 on Regional Government and to identify regulatory gaps and models for resolving conflicts over public assets following decentralization. The research method employed is a normative legal approach using legislative, conceptual, case-based, and comparative analyses. The findings reveal that Law No. 23/2014 does not explicitly regulate the status of assets during the agreement period, mechanisms for the transfer of rights and obligations, ownership proportions from multi-source financing, or compensation for the parent region. Consequently, legal uncertainty arises regarding large-scale strategic assets involving third parties. This study also found that multi-party mediation involving the governor and the prosecutor’s office proved more effective in resolving public asset disputes than litigation, as demonstrated in the Tasikmalaya case. This study recommends revising Law No. 23/2014 by adding a special chapter on the transfer of assets resulting from post-decentralization cooperation and formalizing the involvement of the prosecutor’s office in the mediation of public asset disputes.
The rapid development of blockchain has given rise to smart contracts that challenge traditional legal doctrine, even though the technology is crucial to supporting SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals) 9 and 16. Purpose: This study aims to analyze smart contract governance in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand to support the achievement of the SDGs in the region. Method: A normative-comparative legal method is used with a socio-legal approach. This study examines the synchronization of regulations and the socio-institutional impacts. Results: The validity of smart contracts in the three countries is interpretative due to the lack of specific regulations. The self-executing and immutable nature triggers doctrinal tensions related to agreements and consumer protection, which are increased by the digital literacy gap. Conclusion: Smart contract governance in Southeast Asia requires an adaptive regulatory strategy that balances innovation and legal certainty. Suggestion: Authorities are expected to develop co-regulation-based regulations, strengthen digital institutions, and initiate regional legal standardization across ASEAN (Association of Southeast Nations). Contributions: The contribution is in the development of a blueprint for regional digital law harmonization that integrates aspects of dogmatic law with legal sociology. This study offers a model for ASEAN legal standardization that bridges technological innovation with social justice and provides indicators of institutional readiness replicated by developing countries in embracing an inclusive and sustainable digital economy.
Although the legal status of digital assets has received attention in various previous studies, research that specifically discusses the authority and responsibility of notaries in preparing inheritance certificates related to digital assets within the framework of Western inheritance law in Indonesia remains limited. This study aims to analyze the legal position of digital assets, particularly cryptocurrency and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), as objects of inheritance under inheritance law in Indonesia, and to examine the authority and limits of notarial responsibility in preparing inheritance certificates related to digital assets. This study used a normative legal research method with statutory, conceptual, and analytical approaches. Primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials were collected through library research and analyzed qualitatively, supported by interviews with notarial practitioners. The results show that digital assets with economic value can be classified as intangible movable objects based on Articles 499, 503, and 504 of the Indonesian Civil Code, and therefore may form part of an estate. However, notarial authority is limited to formal aspects, namely the verification of identity, documents, and statements of the appearers, and does not include guaranteeing access to or the transfer of digital assets, which depend on private keys and digital platform policies. Notarial responsibility is limited to formal truth, not material truth regarding the existence, ownership, or accessibility of digital assets. The conclusion of this study emphasizes the importance of comprehensive regulations and standard operating procedures for notaries in handling the inheritance of digital assets. These findings contribute to the development of notarial law in addressing technological challenges and broaden the understanding of the adaptation of inheritance law to digital assets. The implications of this study include theoretical contributions to the literature on notarial law and inheritance law, as well as practical recommendations for the Indonesian Notary Association and policymakers to formulate clear guidelines on the inheritance of digital assets.
I Nyoman Teja Kusuma, Ika Devy Pramudiana, Nihayatus Sholichah
The enactment of Law Number 1 of 2022 concerning Financial Relations between the Central and Regional Governments (HKPD Law) introduced a pivotal shift in Indonesia’s fiscal decentralization through the Motor Vehicle Tax (PKB) "opsen" (option) mechanism. This study analyzes the impact of HKPD Law implementation on local revenue (PAD) strengthening in Probolinggo City and Regency. Utilizing a qualitative comparative case study approach, the research evaluates administrative readiness and policy impacts derived from Ministry of Finance Regulation (PMK) Number 3 of 2024. The findings reveal an asymmetrical transition, where fiscal effectiveness is highly contingent on digital infrastructure maturity and geographical constraints. Probolinggo City demonstrates successful host-to-host system integration, ensuring daily liquidity and bureaucratic efficiency. Conversely, Probolinggo Regency faces "geospatial gaps," characterized by transaction data delays and high collection costs in remote areas. This study identifies a lack of target alignment between provincial and local governments and emphasizes the necessity of "budget tagging" for road infrastructure to enhance the social contract with taxpayers. This research contributes to fiscal decentralization theory by proposing a "geographic coefficient" model for operational cost distribution in developing regions.
Fariq Wastu Nuzlul Qurani, R. Eriska Ginalita Dwi Putri
Perkembangan teknologi Blockchain telah menghasilkan inovasi baru berupa Non-Fungible Token (NFT), yang memungkinkan karya digital diperdagangkan sebagai aset digital yang unik dalam ekosistem berbasis Blockchain. Kehadiran NFT membuka peluang ekonomi baru bagi para kreator digital untuk memonetisasi karya mereka secara lebih luas. Akan tetapi, praktik minting dan perdagangan NFT juga memunculkan masalah hukum, terutama terkait pelanggaran hak cipta pada karya digital yang dimanfaatkan tanpa persetujuan dari penciptanya. Studi ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji jenis perlindungan hukum yang bersifat represif bagi para pencipta digital dari duplikasi karya dalam ekosistem NFT serta pertanggungjawaban hukum bagi pelanggaran hak cipta. Metode yuridis normatif digunakan dengan pendekatan perundang-undangan, konseptual dan kasus. Penelitian ini menunjukkan, bahwa pelanggaran hak cipta dalam ekosistem NFT biasanya terjadi melalui penggunaan dan pengubahan karya digital menjadi NFT tanpa persetujuan dari pencipta aslinya. Perlindungan hukum represif terhadap pelanggaran ini dapat diambil melalui jalur perdata yaitu tuntutan ganti rugi dan penghapusan NFT yang melanggar hak cipta, serta melalui jalur pidana berdasarkan UUHC Nomor 28 Tahun 2014. Dengan demikian, penegakan hukum masih menghadapi tantangan karena sifat desentralisasi teknologi Blockchain dan kurangnya regulasi khusus terkait NFT di Indonesia.
The study aims to examine dispute resolution using blockchain arbitration based on artificial intelligence and smart contracts to determine the terms, conditions, and procedures related to the dispute. When a dispute arises between the parties, the details of the dispute are recorded on the blockchain. Under smart contracts, the parties involved in the arbitration and the rules governing the proceedings can be specified. The advantage of blockchain arbitration is its transparency and the permanent and secure documentation of all details on the blockchain, making it difficult for parties to manipulate the record or falsify information. This helps to resolve disputes fairly through arbitration. The study concludes that, although blockchain arbitration is a promising technology, it is still in the development stages, and its success depends on the recognition of the process by the parties involved and the arbitrators. It is also important to consider local legislation and regulations that may affect the application of blockchain arbitration in various national and international laws.
The development of blockchain technology has given birth to new digital assets, namely Non-Fungible Token (NFT). Its popularity has grown rapidly, transforming it from a mere digital collectible into a high-value investment instrument. This phenomenon opens up opportunities for NFTs to be utilized in various financial sectors, including as collateral. Its significant economic potential drives the need to examine its legal position within the existing financial system. Despite its economic value, the legal status of NFTs as fiduciary collateral in Indonesia remains unclear. The current Law Number 42 of 1999 concerning Fiduciary Collateral is designed for conventionally recognized tangible and intangible movable objects. The absence of specific regulations governing digital assets such as NFTs creates a legal vacuum, creating uncertainty for parties seeking to utilize them. This research is a legal research (doctrinal research) with a legal approach (statues approach), conceptual approach (conceptual approach), and analytical approach (analytical approach). The results of this study explain that first, the existence of Non-Fungible Token The development of NFTs as digital assets in Indonesia began with the development of the digital economy and increased public interest in using investment instruments. Second, the lack of specific regulations for NFTs as fiduciary collateral creates a significant legal vacuum, and the current Fiduciary Guarantee Law is not designed to accommodate the unique characteristics of digital assets, such as value volatility and technical identification. Third, accurately identifying NFTs during the execution process is a fundamental challenge. Unlike physical assets, NFTs can only be recognized through a series of cryptographic data such as token IDs and complex contract addresses. Current regulations fail to accommodate their unique characteristics related to classification, valuation, and registration and execution mechanisms. This situation creates significant legal uncertainty, thus creating high risks for the parties involved. The recommendation for this issue is the need for the government to immediately revise fiduciary guarantee regulations or establish specific regulations for digital assets. In the meantime, the government can create regulations in the form of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law (Perppu) or Supreme Court Rules (Perma) so that the legitimacy of digital asset objects such as NFTs is legally recognized as a class of movable and intangible assets in fiduciary guarantees.
The development of blockchain technology and smart contracts has presented a new paradigm in contract practice, including in mineral commodity sales and purchase transactions, which are highly complex and potentially subject to significant disputes. This study aims to analyze the legal status of smart contracts in the Indonesian legal system, identify the challenges to their application in the mining sector, and formulate a legal framework that adapts to technological developments. The method used is a normative juridical approach, employing statutory, conceptual, and comparative analyses of the Civil Code, the Electronic Information and Transactions Law, and mining regulations. The results of the study indicate that smart contracts do not fully meet the requirements of contract law, particularly regarding consent and the parties' understanding of the code. Furthermore, there are conflicts with contractual principles such as good faith and flexibility in the face of force majeure. The implications for the concepts of default and legal liability have also shifted due to the automated nature of smart contracts. Nevertheless, this technology has the potential to increase transaction efficiency and transparency. This study recommends a hybrid contract model that combines legal codes and texts, and also calls for regulatory harmonization to accommodate the use of smart contracts in the mining sector.
Pesatnya perkembangan teknologi finansial telah melahirkan aset digital baru berupa Cryptocurrency dan Non-Fungible Token (NFT) yang memiliki nilai ekonomi signifikan. Namun, regulasi di Indonesia saat ini lebih menitikberatkan pada aspek perdagangan (komoditas) melalui aturan Bappebti, sementara pengaturannya sebagai objek hukum dalam ranah keperdataan, khususnya hukum kewarisan, masih belum spesifik. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis kedudukan hukum aset digital sebagai objek waris menurut Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Perdata (KUHPerdata) dan mekanisme pemindahannya kepada ahli waris. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah yuridis normatif dengan pendekatan perundang-undangan (statute approach) dan pendekatan konseptual (conceptual approach). Data yang digunakan adalah data sekunder yang terdiri dari bahan hukum primer, sekunder, dan tersier. Meskipun bersifat imateriel, Cryptocurrency dan NFT memenuhi kualifikasi sebagai "Benda" (Zaak) bergerak yang tidak berwujud sebagaimana diatur dalam Pasal 499 dan Pasal 503 KUHPerdata, karena memiliki nilai ekonomi dan dapat dimiliki secara hukum. Oleh karena itu, aset digital secara yuridis sah untuk dikategorikan sebagai bagian dari harta warisan (boedel waris). Dalam pewarisan aset digital terletak pada sifat anonimitas dan desentralisasi teknologi blockchain. Tanpa penyerahan private key atau akses dompet digital dari pewaris kepada ahli waris, aset tersebut terancam menjadi "aset beku" yang tidak dapat dieksekusi meskipun secara hukum hak kepemilikannya telah berpindah demi hukum (Le Mort Saisit Le Vif). Diperlukan pembaharuan hukum atau pedoman teknis mengenai tata cara pembuktian kepemilikan dan prosedur eksekusi aset digital dalam penetapan waris agar memberikan kepastian hukum dan perlindungan hak bagi ahli waris.
The development of financial technology has led to the emergence of cryptocurrency as a decentralized digital instrument that enables fast and cross-border financial transactions. While this technology offers efficiency and flexibility in digital financial activities, it also creates opportunities for misuse in various forms of crime, including terrorist financing. This study aims to analyze the use of cryptocurrency as a means of financing terrorist activities in Indonesia, examine the existing legal framework governing terrorist financing, and identify the challenges faced in law enforcement. This research employs a normative legal method using statutory, conceptual, and case study approaches. The findings indicate that the use of cryptocurrency as a medium for terrorist financing still fulfills the elements of a criminal offense as regulated under Law Number 9 of 2013 concerning the Prevention and Eradication of Terrorism Financing. However, the characteristics of cryptocurrency, such as anonymity, decentralization, and cross-border transactions, create significant challenges in the processes of evidence gathering, transaction tracing, and identification of perpetrators. In addition, there is a regulatory gap between the recognition of crypto assets as economic commodities and the supervision of their potential misuse for terrorist financing. Therefore, stronger regulations are needed to explicitly integrate crypto assets into the terrorist financing prevention regime, along with improving the capacity of law enforcement agencies in blockchain transaction analysis and strengthening international cooperation to enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement in the digital economy era.
Legal certainty is a fundamental prerequisite for implementing decentralized governance, particularly to ensure protection for the apparatus in developing public service innovations. However, regulatory fragmentation often leads to overlapping authority and administrative uncertainty at the local level. This research aims to examine the legal certainty construction of innovation through a vertical synchronization test of Regulation Number 20 of 2021, and to evaluate its sociological implications on the fluctuation of regional innovation performance. This research employs a normative legal method calibrated with policy evaluation through statutory and conceptual approaches, and analyzes Regional Innovation Index data for the 2020 to 2025 period. The analysis results indicate that the Regent Regulation suffered multilayered substantive defects over time. In the initial formulation phase, the budget deprivation threat sanction for innovations deemed unsuccessful contradicted the apparatus protection principle under Law Number 23 of 2014. Furthermore, the local government has been found to have committed legislative omission by failing to amend the Regent Regulation to accommodate the updates to the institutionalization obligation and affirmative financing guarantees mandated following the promulgation of Ministerial Regulation Number 91 of 2021 and Governor Regulation Number 3 of 2022. Factual evidence confirms that this static and defective legal formulation triggered a climate of bureaucratic fear, resulting in a drastic decline in the regional innovation score in the first year of the regulation’s implementation and subsequent stagnation. In conclusion, punitive innovation regulations that are unresponsive to hierarchical updates have degraded the essence of regional autonomy and created a governance paradox. Therefore, the revocation of the administrative sanction clause and the execution of the institutionalization amendment must be executed to restore a safe authorizing environment for experimental legislation.
Bitcoin transactions is gaining strength in the global economic landscape, including in Indonesia, as a consequence of the development of financial technology and the decentralization of the digital economy. Positive facts indicate that Bitcoin offers an alternative investment and transaction instrument with characteristics of transparency, speed, and minimal cross-border costs. However, negative facts that cannot be ignored are Bitcoin's value volatility , the potential for money laundering, and weak legal protection for users. In a social context, Bitcoin creates segregation between digitally savvy groups who benefit from it and conventional groups who are increasingly marginalized due to limited access and digital literacy . This study uses a normative-juridical method with a legislative and conceptual approach to analyze the legal implications of Bitcoin use in the Indonesian economy. The research gap lies in the lack of normative studies linking crypto asset regulation to the social impact of class segregation in the digital society. To date, regulations have emphasized legality and transaction oversight without considering the dimension of social justice. The research questions are formulated as follows: first, what are the legal implications of Bitcoin transactions in the Indonesian economic system? Second, how is social segregation formed through the practice of Bitcoin use in society? The novelty of this research is its interdisciplinary analysis linking the legal regulation of digital businesses with the social realities created by Bitcoin adoption . Preliminary results indicate that although Bitcoin is recognized as a legitimate crypto asset for trading, its lack of legal tender status creates legal dualism and reinforces socio-economic gaps in society.
The advancement of blockchain technology has introduced Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) as digital assets representing ownership of creative works. However, the burgeoning NFT market precipitates significant legal risks, primarily arising from the dichotomy between the ownership of the digital token and the copyright of the underlying work. This research aims to examine the juridical risks inherent in NFT transactions, given the regulatory lacuna within the Indonesian legal system. Although Law No. 28 of 2014 concerning Copyright provides a normative framework, its application within the NFT ecosystem confronts challenges regarding legal certainty and platform accountability. The findings underscore the exigency of statutory harmonization and a more comprehensive legal protection mechanism, including defined liabilities for Electronic System Providers (ESPs), to mitigate risks and ensure equitable legal protection within Indonesia’s digital economy.
Objective: This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of regulatory models across selected jurisdictions such as the United States, Brazil, China, Thailand, Indonesia, and the European Union and to analyze emerging trends in crypto-related economic crime, particularly in relation to implementation gaps in FATF Recommendation 15, namely the Travel Rule, and the resulting cross-jurisdictional regulatory arbitrage dynamics. Research Design & Methods: This study uses a comparative qualitative approach through document analysis and cross-country case studies. Secondary data comes from FATF, Interpol, UNODC, Chainalysis reports, national regulations, and academic literature, which are analyzed using thematic content analysis and comparative regulatory analysis. Findings: Research findings indicate that regulatory fragmentation and gaps in the implementation of FATF standards create regulatory arbitrage loopholes that are exploited by crypto criminals. Crypto crime in the 2024-2025 period is becoming more professionalized, marked by the dominance of stablecoins, the involvement of state actors, and low asset recovery rates. Network-based international investigative cooperation, has proven to be more adaptive than unilateral repressive approaches. Implications: There is a need for harmonization of cross-border AML policies, acceleration of Travel Rule implementation, and strengthening of informal investigative cooperation mechanisms and public private partnerships with VASPs to improve the effectiveness of asset tracing and recovery. Contribution & Value Added: This study enriches the literature on digital economic crime by linking regulatory arbitrage and FATF networked governance, and provides the latest empirical evidence for the formulation of adaptive AML policies in the era of decentralized finance.
The development of blockchain technology encourages the use of smart contracts as digital contract instruments that are automatic and cannot be changed, especially in cross-sector commercial transactions. This study aims to analyze the legal status of blockchain-based smart contracts as well as evaluate the possibility of their integration in legally recognized commercial contract dispute resolution mechanisms. This research uses a normative legal research method with a conceptual and case legislation approach conducted through a literature study of laws and regulations, legal doctrine, as well as relevant decisions and cases. This study does not involve respondents or informants because it focuses on the analysis of legal norms and concepts. The data was analyzed qualitatively juridically through interpretation methods and legal arguments. The results of the study show that smart contracts can in principle be integrated in the settlement of commercial contract disputes as an instrument for the implementation and proof of contracts, but have not been able to fully replace the role of conventional dispute resolution mechanisms due to their limitations in handling legal interpretation, the application of the principle of good faith, and certain conditions such as non-technical defaults. This study concludes that the integration of smart contracts requires a hybrid model that combines technology-based automated execution with a law-based dispute resolution mechanism to ensure legal certainty and substantive justice in commercial contract practice.
The development of blockchain technology has given rise to smart contracts as a self-executing, decentralized, code-based contractual mechanism. Their presence poses conceptual and normative challenges in the Indonesian contract law system, particularly regarding the legal standing and construction of the parties' responsibilities amidst a normative vacuum. This study aims to analyze the legal status of smart contracts from the perspective of Indonesian civil law and to formulate a relevant legal liability model for blockchain-based transactions. The research method used is normative legal research with statutory, conceptual, and analytical approaches. Primary legal materials include the Civil Code, the Electronic Transactions and Transactions Law, and regulations related to electronic transactions, while secondary legal materials include doctrine, liability theory, and literature on blockchain. The results show that smart contracts can be qualified as agreements as long as they meet the valid requirements of an agreement as stipulated in Article 1320 of the Civil Code. However, their immutable and automated nature creates tensions with the principles of freedom of contract and good faith. The identification of legal subjects in the blockchain ecosystem includes users, developers, validators, and platforms, with liability models that can be based on fault liability or the possibility of strict liability under certain conditions. The absence of norms has the potential to give rise to disparities in interpretation and legal uncertainty, so that a normative reconstruction is needed that is adaptive to the character of decentralization to ensure legal certainty, justice, and benefits.
Fanidio Muhammad Ariq Sugiarto, Nur Chanifah, Siti Rohmah
The rapid development of blockchain technology has introduced smart contracts as automated digital agreements widely used in the Decentralized Finance (DeFi) ecosystem. These contracts operate without intermediaries and execute transactions based on algorithmic conditions, creating new legal and sharia implications. This study aims to analyze the validity of smart contracts as akad (contracts) within the framework of fiqh muamalah and to formulate regulatory needs based on maqāṣid al-sharī‘ah and positive law. This research uses normative juridical methods with statutory, conceptual, and sharia approaches by examining legal doctrines, regulations, and Islamic jurisprudence principles. The results show that smart contracts can qualify as valid akad if pillars and conditions of contract are fulfilled, including parties, consent, object, and lawful purpose, although digital consent and automated execution require interpretative expansion. From the maqāṣid perspective, smart contracts potentially support protection of wealth (ḥifẓ al-māl), transparency, and efficiency, but also pose gharar and risk if coding errors and regulatory gaps exist. Therefore, integrative regulation and sharia compliance standards are necessary to ensure legal certainty and maslahah in DeFi transactions.
Komang Irvan Tri Permadi, Si Ngurah Ardhya, Ratna Artha Windari
Skripsi ini membahas mengenai analisis yuridis perlindungan hak cipta atas gambar Non Fungible Token (NFT) ditinjau dari Undang-Undang Hak Cipta. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memahami pengaturan, dan perlindungan hak cipta atas gambar yang diperuntukkan sebagai Non-Fungible Token yang berada di indonesia dengan menggunakan perbandingan negara amerika dan UniEropa. Jenis penelitian hukum normatif penelitian ini terfokus kepada doktrin ataupun peraturan perundang-undangan (law in books) dipandang dari hukum positif atau das sollen. Bahan hukum primer, sekunder, dan tersier adalah sumber bahan hukum yang akan digunakan sebagai acuan dalam merancang penelitian normatif ini. penelitian normatif terutama berkaitan dengan data sekunder, yang mencakup undang-undang, putusan pengadilan, teori hukum, konsep hukum, dan hasil penelitian ilmiah akademisi (doktrin). Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa Pengaturan Hak Cipta di Indonesia seperti Undang-Undang Nomor 28 Tahun 2014 Tentang Hak Cipta. Belum secara spesifik mengatur keberadaan hak cipta melalui NFT. Selain itu, bentuk sistem pengawasan hak cipta belum sepenuhnya adaptif terhadap teknologi baru seperti blockchain. Di Amerika Serikat, undang-undang hak cipta, terutama Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) dan Undang-Undang Hak Cipta 1976, mengatur perlindungan karya yang dicetak sebagai NFT. Uni Eropa belum memiliki UU khusus yang mengatur hak cipta NFT secara spesifik, Pengaturan Directive on Copyright In The Digital Single Market (EU 2019/790) dalam pasal 17 yang memberikan hak eksklusif kepada pemegang hak cipta atas karya digital.
The principle of freedom of contract, as regulated in Article 1338 paragraph (1) of the Indonesian Civil Code, affirms that legally formed agreements bind the parties as law. This principle grants contractual autonomy to determine the formation, parties, and content of agreements, provided they do not violate statutory law, public order, or morality. However, such freedom is limited by the principles of good faith, fairness, proportionality, and the protection of weaker parties.The development of blockchain technology has introduced smart contracts as automatically executed electronic agreements based on pre-programmed code. Legally, smart contracts may be considered valid contracts insofar as they fulfill the requirements of Article 1320 of the Indonesian Civil Code and comply with the Law on Electronic Information and Transactions. Digital consent, such as authorization through a digital wallet, constitutes a legitimate expression of agreement.Smart contracts represent a modern manifestation of freedom of contract by enabling automated performance without third-party intervention, reflecting the prior intention of the parties embedded in blockchain-based code. Their application on platforms such as Stellar Lumens (XLM) demonstrates practical implementation in cryptocurrency transactions. Nevertheless, legal challenges remain, including regulatory gaps, transaction anonymity, technological inequality, and potential imbalances in bargaining power. Therefore, adaptive legal regulation is essential to ensure legal certainty, fairness, and effective legal protection.