The article, which is part of a doctoral thesis that investigated participation and social control in the financial management of Youth and Adult Education Centers (CEJA, in Portuguese), as it is an integral part of the public policy of financing education in the country, presents reflections on the state policy of financial decentralization to CEJA. The original research, a case study carried out in five CEJA in the state of Rio de Janeiro, aimed to understand how social control is exercised, and whether this exercise and the participation it requires contribute to the quality of public school management. A documentary survey and systematic observation of these spaces were carried out and, through questionnaires, the conceptions of students, teachers and employees were captured; in addition, managers were also interviewed, seeking to know how, why and for what purpose social control over decentralized financial resources to CEJA is exercised and participated in. Evidence found in the content and in some of the practices observed in the empirical field supports the validity of the hypothesis formulated, broadening the understanding of the theoretical framework adopted, not without realizing the limits that reality imposes on this exercise, which compromises the effectiveness of the practices, specifically with regard to financial management, which remains the challenge to be faced.
O objeto da pesquisa é o estudo da dimensão jurídica de uma Infraestrutura de Dados Espaciais (IDE), conforme o conceito privacy by design. É crucial que uma IDE tenha uma abordagem voltada para privacidade desde a sua concepção e adote normas, padrões e tecnologias avançadas. A temática mostra-se relevante, uma vez que, a modernização da administração pública e privada por meio de IDE, que facilite e ordene o armazenamento, acesso, compartilhamento, disseminação e uso da geoinformação, deve ser acompanhada de garantias contra os riscos ao cidadão derivados do tratamento de seus dados pessoais. Estas garantias são necessárias para o exercício da cidadania em uma sociedade ávida pela informação, e foram duramente conquistadas e consolidadas pelo direito fundamental à proteção de dados e pela lei de proteção de dados pessoais. Sendo assim, uma IDE precisa estar adequada à esta lei desde a sua concepção, para garantir que a devida proteção dos direitos fundamentais de liberdade e de privacidade do cidadão estabeleça-se como o seu modo de operação padrão, bem como para não suscitar no cidadão um sentimento de desconfiança nas organizações, no tocante à proteção do seu dado pessoal. O objetivo geral deste trabalho é apresentar uma proposta de arquitetura de referência para extensão de IDE. A metodologia utilizada na realização da pesquisa privilegia o protagonismo e a centralidade do cidadão, visando à entrega do controle e da ciência sobre a utilização do seu dado pessoal por organização — pública ou privada. Desse modo, a privacidade será preservada, conforme o propósito da legislação vigente. A seguir, estão relacionados os elementos que asseguram privacidade e segurança: o dado pessoal (e.g. alfanumérico ou coordenadas geográficas), a confiança e transparência por meio da tecnologia blockchain, o consentimento por meio da tecnologia smart contract, a oficialização e chancela por meio de non-fungible token (NFT); todos imersos na Web3. Tal proposta apresenta como hipótese a efetiva proteção dos direitos fundamentais de liberdade e de privacidade do cidadão, por meio da extensão da arquitetura de IDE. Como resultado parcial deste trabalho em andamento, foi obtida a arquitetura de referência para extensão de IDE, que propõe a inserção das seguintes camadas: usuário, browser, interoperabilidade, consentimento e certificação, confiança e transparência, persistência; todas a oferecer suporte distribuído para a IDE.
Adalgisa Costa Melo, Francisco Meton Marques de Lima
Resumo A presente investigação busca descrever as principais políticas públicas habitacionais brasileiras pós Constituição Federal de 1988, com ênfase para o Estado do Piauí. Para isto, alicerçada no método hipotético-dedutivo, optou-se pela pesquisa descritiva, desenvolvida com base na análise temática de conteúdos. Desta forma, abordou inicialmente, a descentralização da política habitacional e o papel dos entes federativos, num ambiente marcado pela redemocratização do país. Em seguida, voltou-se para a Política Nacional de Habitação desenvolvida a partir de então, aprofundando-se na sua evolução desde a criação do Sistema Nacional de Habitação de Interesse Social até a criação do Programa Minha Casa Minha Vida. Dedicou-se, ainda, aos fundos que abastecem a Habitação de Interesse Social e aos fundos de financiamento da habitação social no Programa Minha Casa Minha Vida, finalizando com uma reflexão sobre a atual política de acesso à moradia, que vem sendo planejada e construída de maneira mercantilizada.Palavras-chave: Moradia. Políticas Públicas Habitacionais. Sistema Nacional de Habitação de Interesse Social. Programa Minha Casa Minha Vida. Mercantilização da Moradia. Abstract The present investigation seeks to describe the main Brazilian public housing policies after the 1988 Federal Constitution, with an emphasis on the State of Piauí. For this, based on the hypothetical- deductive method, we opted for descriptive research, developed based on thematic content analysis. In this way, it initially addressed the decentralization of housing policy and the role of federative entities, in an environment marked by the redemocratization of the country. Then, it turned to the National Housing Policy developed since then, deepening its evolution from the creation of the National Housing System of Social Interest to the creation of the Minha Casa Minha Vida Program. He also dedicated himself to the funds that supply Social Interest Housing and the social housing financing funds in the Minha Casa Minha Vida Program, ending with a reflection on the current policy of access to housing, which has been planned and built in accordance with commercialized way.Keywords: Home. Public Housing Policies. National Social Interest Housing System. Minha Casa Minha Vida Program. Housing Mercantilization.
Vitor Queiroz de Paula, Thays de Oliveira Nogueira, Clodoaldo Sanches Fófano, Fábio Machado de Oliveira · 5 authors
RESUMO BITCOIN: FUNCIONAMENTO E CARACTERÍSTICAS PECULIARES BITCOIN: OPERATION AND PECULIAR CHARACTERISTICS BITCOIN: FUNCIONAMIENTO Y CARACTERÍSTICAS PECULIARES Ao longo de muitos anos, a moeda passou por alterações de modo que com tempo foi adquirindo aperfeiçoamento de forma em que a população tinha como objetivo realizar trocas comerciais em um livre-comércio. Com o avanço da tecnologia e das necessidades de mercados novas ferramentas e sistemas surgiram, dentre eles as moedas digitais, em especial o Bitcoin. Diante desse mercado novo e desconhecido, muitos investidores utilizam essa forma de transação financeira diferenciada que pode gerar impactos econômicos, uma vez que tal moeda digital não necessita de bancos ou grandes corporações para ser movimentada. Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar o funcionamento e as características peculiares do Bitcoin como primeira moeda digital. Metodologicamente, este estudo é estruturado por meio de pesquisa bibliográfica de base qualitativa, foram utilizados artigos científicos, livros de modo a possibilitar o aprofundamento temático. Por fim, infere-se que o Bitcoin vem ganhando destaque, no campo virtual e real da sociedade global, desde sua criação até o período atual. Assim, torna-se válido analisar o seu funcionamento e características, de forma que se evidencie benefícios no que diz respeito a investimentos, utilização para compra e venda. Palavras-chave: Bitcoin. Funcionamento. Moeda digital.
O artigo analisa a criptomoeda Bitcoin como parte de um novo setor do mercado financeiro, a fintech 3.0. Subscrevendo a tese de Maurizio Lazzarato de que a categoria do homem endividado seria a forma de governamentalidade do capitalismo contemporâneo, discute-se de que modo a Bitcoin funciona como um vetor de expansão a uma parcela da população da lógica social do endividamento. A princípio, proponho pensar a criptomoeda como mídia. A seguir, apresento uma genealogia das ideologias que animaram a criação do Bitcoin, a fim de demonstrar os valores libertários que nortearam o desenho dessa nova tecnologia. Por fim, discuto como a fintech 3.0 difunde a lógica social do homem endividado por meio de dispositivos digitais pessoais.
Resumo
A globalizacao financeira desenvolvida nas ultimas decadas e um fenomeno que, associado as relacoes politicas, construiu relacionamentos interdependentes entres paises no cenario internacional — a partir da metade do seculo XX. Formou-se, assim, um complexo sistema originado da interconexao financeira nacional dos Estados que possibilitou, entre outros aspectos, a construcao de um intenso fluxo de capitais. Esse sistema ultrapassou barreiras territoriais e, atualmente, realiza investimentos diretos em entes subnacionais. Dessa forma, surgiram intensas atividades internacionais destes governos, que transformaram a rotina diplomatica ao apresentar novas formas de fazer politica externa — que deu origem a atuacao paradiplomatica destes atores. No Brasil, o crescimento consideravel do ativismo internacional dos entes federados autonomos, ocorrido principalmente a partir da decada de 1980, exigiu um avanco do Estado. A Uniao precisou se adequar ao desafio de criar e desenvolver politicas publicas que coordenassem diretrizes aptas a concretizar a atuacao descentralizada de poder, na formacao de parcerias e captacao de recursos externos. Por isso, o presente estudo visa esclarecer, de forma geral, como este sistema tem funcionado. A analise foi amparada sob o olhar teorico das relacoes internacionais que explicam estes acontecimentos, as instituicoes financeiras integrantes e como o Estado brasileiro operacionaliza este processo — em especial, os entes subnacionais; ha, por exemplo, as experiencias exitosas dos municipios de Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre e Estado-membro do Rio de Janeiro, que se estruturaram para realizar a captacao de recursos junto aos organismos e instituicoes financeiras internacionais. Tais solucoes se mostraram alternativa importante para efetivacao de politicas publicas, com vistas a atender demandas sociais regionais e locais. Realizou-se uma revisao bibliografica de carater qualitativo e descritivo, atraves de livros, artigos e materiais congeneres publicados entre 1984 e 2019. Objetivou-se esclarecer a dinâmica de cooperacao e obtencao internacional de investimentos, alem de compreender como o corpo federativo subnacional incorpora, em suas estruturas, uma atuacao tecnica-qualificada, para realizar a obtencao de parcerias e recursos junto aos organismos internacionais de financiamento.
Palavras-chave: Globalizacao financeira. Construtivismo. Interdependencia complexa. Cooperacao internacional. Organizacoes financeiras internacionais. Entes subnacionais brasileiros. Instrumentalizacao paradiplomatica.
Abstract
The financial globalization developed in recent decades is a phenomenon that, associated with political relations, has built interdependent relationships between countries in the international scenario — from the mid-twentieth century. Thus, a complex system originated from the national financial interconnection of states was formed, which allowed, among other aspects, the formation of an intense flow of capital. This system has overcome territorial barriers and currently makes direct investments in subnational entities. Hence, these governments' intense international activities emerged, which transformed the diplomatic routine by presenting new ways of doing foreign policy — which gave rise to the paradiplomatic performance of these actors. In Brazil, the considerable growth of international activism of autonomous federated entities, which occurred mainly since the 1980s, required the State to advance. The Union had to adapt to the challenge of creating and developing public policies that would coordinate guidelines able to achieve decentralized action of power, in forming partnerships and raising external resources. Therefore, the present study aims to clarify, in a general way, how this system has worked. The analysis was based on the theoretical perspective of international relations that explain these events, the financial institutions, and how the Brazilian State operationalizes this process — primarily, the subnational entities; there are, for example, the successful experiences of the municipalities of Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre and the Member State of Rio de Janeiro, which were structured to raise funds with international financial organizations and institutions. Such solutions proved to be an essential alternative for implementing public policies to meet regional and local social demands. A qualitative and descriptive bibliographical review was carried out, through books, articles, and similar materials published between 1984 and 2019. The objective was to clarify the dynamics of international cooperation and obtaining of investments and understand how the subnational federative body incorporates, in its structures, a technique-qualified performance, to obtain partnerships and resources from international financial organizations.
Keywords: Financial globalization. Constructivism. Complex interdependence. International cooperation. International financial organizations. Brazilian subnational entities. Paradiplomatic instrumentalization.
Resumen
La globalizacion financiera desarrollada en las ultimas decadas es un fenomeno que, asociado a las relaciones politicas, construyo relaciones independientes entre paises en el escenario internacional — a partir de la mitad del siglo XX. Se ha formado, de esa manera, un complejo sistema originado en la interconexion financiera nacional de los Estados, que permitio, entre otros aspectos, la construccion de un intenso flujo de capitales. Ese sistema traspaso barreras territoriales y, actualmente, realiza inversiones directas en entidades subnacionales. De esa forma, han surgido intensas actividades internacionales de esos gobiernos, que transformaron la rutina diplomatica al presentar nuevas formas de hacer politica externa — que le dio inicio a la actuacion paradiplomatica de esos actores. En Brasil, el considerable crecimiento del activismo internacional de las entidades federales autonomas, principalmente a partir de la decada de 1980, exigio que el Estado avanzara. La Union necesito adecuarse al reto de crear y desarrollar politicas publicas que coordinaran lineas directrices aptas para poner en practica la actuacion descentralizada del poder, en la formacion de alianzas y captacion de recursos externos. Por ello, este estudio pretende aclarar, de forma general, como este sistema ha estado funcionando. El analisis se apoyo en la mirada teorica de las relaciones internacionales que explican esos eventos, las instituciones financieras y como el Estado brasileno pone en practica ese proceso — en especial, las entidades subnacionales; hay, por ejemplo, experiencias exitosas en los municipios de Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre y en el Estado-miembro de Rio de Janeiro, que se estructuraron para realizar la captacion de recursos junto a los organismos e instituciones financieras internacionales. Tales soluciones han demostrado ser alternativa importante para la concrecion de politicas publicas, destinadas a atender demandas sociales regionales y locales. Se realizo una revision bibliografica de caracter cualitativo y descriptivo, por medio de libros, articulos y materiales similares, publicados entre 1984 y 2019. El objetivo fue aclarar la dinamica de cooperacion y obtencion internacional de inversiones, ademas de entender como el cuerpo federativo subnacional incorpora, en sus estructuras, una actuacion tecnico-cualificada, para la obtencion de alianzas y recursos junto a los organismos internacionales de financiamiento.
Palabras-clave: Globalizacion financiera. Constructivismo. Interdependencia compleja. Cooperacion internacional. Organizaciones financieras internacionales. Entes subnacionales brasilenos. Instrumentacion paradiplomatica.
The study analyzes the "International Law and the constitution of Mozambique: Consensus and dissent in the light of the Global Legal pluralism". This reflective analysis will converge in the problem of the internationalization of law in contemporary society, i.e., the interaction between International Law and the Constitutional Law in the light of the global legal pluralism. After reflecting on past political, economic and social changes, it is concluded that, on the one hand, constitutionalism is neither limited nor satisfied only with the structure of the state legal space (national) and its legal order. On the other hand, International Law is no longer limited to issues related to global international policy. The phenomenon of emerging globalization has created a challenge to the international law as to the idea of a pluralist synchronization and polycentric notion of Law that could respect the legal diversity or legal specificity, within the global Legal Pluralism. The older idea of International Law entered into crisis for not having achieved the unity and cohesion within the global legal system. This crisis driven by the polycentric force of globalization dictated the diversification and the expansion of international law. This diversification has imposed the constitution and strengthening of various autonomous international legal regimes, the multiplication of organs of international conflicts resolution and the emergence of a new normative configuration. With the emergence of new instances of international and global legal production, the debate on the internationalization of Law imposes itself as an urgent need, in the framework of the globalization process and the global legal pluralism. The great debate today, on this theme, departed from general International Law and is set in the context of the new global international legal order. The debate on the internationalization of law took two aspects: one on the protagonism of new instances of autonomous global and international legal production and its influence in the construction of the global international legal order. Another aspect is that of regional economic and political blocks and of organizations and institutions of humanitarian aid and development, under the same prism. This debate brings back the old or new problem of interaction between International Law and the Constitutional Law in the new global international legal order, i.e., the problem of internationalization of national law. In fact, some international rules emanating from autonomous international legal production organs, within the framework of hegemonic globalization, are imposed directly to citizens and States, sometimes without knowledge of such rules, or of its existence. The action of these organs or agents can be considered as a latching and destructive phenomenon within the national legal orders? These rules are imposed on citizens and States not only as strategies or means of operationalization of flows, for the success of the process of globalization and economic development, but also, sometimes, for unclear purposes and within wide range economic interests. With the introduction of the new international legal regimes, the relationship with National Law has decentralized, thus creating a polycentrism, where each regime seeks to draw to itself the protagonism. This phenomenon has created conflicts within National Law and between the various legal systems. It is noted that each legal regime has its specific rules of internationalization of law. The National Law, in the face of this diversity, must meet several distinct rules and sometimes contradictory. There are times when the same matter is subject to various internationalizations by different legal regimes and through distinct rules to that effect. The proliferation of various regimes and agents in the internationalization of Law has weakened the policies and measures of protection and rule production in peripheral States because of the overlap and complexity of the phenomenon. In this new global legal order, unfortunately, we are witnessing the phenomenon of international legislative hegemony led by the major powers with regard to the demands of globalisation. This unusual phenomenon, lived in the global society, is translated into anti-constitutional and anti-democratic practices in the creation and internationalization of law in peripheral countries. The study starts from the analysis of the relationship between international law and the constitution of Mozambique and returns to the debate on the problem of the relationship between International and National Law, in the framework of the new global international legal order.
The investments of Caixas and Institutos de Aposentadoria e Pensões (CAP and IAP) in homes of Natal, between the decades of 1930-60, helped to boost up the local real estate market in consolidation at the time. Inserted in the first national policy on social housing in the country, these operations have demanded the creation of a wide qualified organizational structure, which would be from the "Central Offices" of Rio de Janeiro to the decentralized units of the federal states. The professionals linked to the Local Agencies have developed, on this matter, from activities related to the design and construction of residential complexes, to the daily study of financing proposals in isolated units. As from these studies, the evaluation of shelters was essential to the effectiveness of the policy, resulting in the production of data on the market value of the properties by observing and issuing judgments upon the living quarters of different social groups. Given these considerations, the aim here is to contribute to the understanding on how to operate these real estate actions in the legitimization of boundaries about the urban space and dwellings available to workers in Natal. Therefore, the views of the city and constructions expressed by the evaluating engineers in their technical reports have been taken as the focus. Being the main primary sources of work, these reports are part of the edifices process of CAP/IAP regarding Natal, whose content is systematized in the database "Enterprises", the HCUrb Research Group. In addition, there were used local newspapers at the time and interviews with professionals as complementary sources. It was found that, in general, the evaluations have configured – in a more everyday dimension of bureaucratic routines - a vehicle, among others, circulating ideas about "home" within the social security institutions, being imbued with assumptions historically constructed about the "modern habitat". Filled in loco, the reports expose the clash between modernizing ideals in vogue and clear limitations in the city scenario at the time. Fragmented images of the town are given to read through the labels assigned to the evaluated sites – these being coated of certain "scientific" character - which both legitimated and contributed to the dynamics of appreciation/depreciation of the soil and to the socio-spatial differentiation. Contradictions were evident in the endorsement given by the technicians when financing of admittedly precarious homes for insured disadvantaged categories at the local level - such as industrial workers - while strict regulations were imposed to new construction, designed, above all, to better paid categories. By identifying raters engineers as urban agents, members of a technical-focused operating system for safety and efficiency in the real estate investments of those authorities corporatist, it is desired the usefulness of further studies on these characters, their training, professional activity and participation in the construction of discourses and practices of intervention about the city and its buildings, discussing individual and grouped interests that were left behind.
This paper presents a cartography of networks in (co)operation, in an urban movement: Porto Alegre Vive. We used the network topology for centralized, decentralized and distributed networks; some principles of complex thinking: dialogic, hologram and self-eco-organization, as well as the perspective of order-disorder-organization. The results point to communication forms; to centralization and mediation, as well as the distribution, emphasizing a non-boundary paradigm. The cooperation is understood as cause and effect of more autonomous relations and, therefore, more democratic.
In the past thirty years, a series of plans have been developed by successive Brazilian governments in a continuing effort to maximize the nation's resources for economic and social growth. This planning history has been quantitatively rich but qualitatively poor. The disjunction has stimulated Professor Mello e Souza to address himself to the problem of national planning and to offer some criticisms of Brazilian planning experience. Though political instability has obviously been a factor promoting discontinuity, his criticisms are aimed at the attitudes and strategic concepts which have sought to link planning to national goals and administration. He criticizes the fascination with techniques and plans to the exclusion of proper diagnosis of the socio-political reality, developing instruments to coordinate and carry out objectives, and creating an administrative structure centralized enough to make national decisions and decentralized enough to perform on the basis of those decisions. Thus, fixed, quantified objectives abound while the problem of functioning mechanisms for the coordinated, rational use of resources has been left unattended. Although his interest and criticism are focused on the process and experience of national planning, he recognized variation in the level and results of Brazilian planning. National plans have failed due to faulty conception of the function of planning. Sectorial plans, save in the sector of the petroleum industry under government responsibility, ha e not succeeded in overcoming the problems of formulation and execution thereby repeating old technical errors. Planning for the private sector has a somewhat brighter history due to the use of Grupos Executivos which has enabled the planning process to transcend the formalism and tradition-bound attitudes of the regular bureaucracy. Regional planning offers two relatively successful experiences, Sudene and the strategy of the regionally oriented autarchy. Thus, planning history in Brazil is not entirely black but a certain shade of grey. The major part of the article, however, is devoted to a descriptive analysis of the national planning experience. The plans included in this analysis are: The Works and Equipment Plan (POE); The Health, Food, Transportation and Energy Plan (Salte); The Program of Goals; The Trienal Plan of Economic and Social Development; and the Plan of Governmental Economic Action (Paeg). Using these five plans for his historical experience the author sets out a series of errors of formulation and execution by which he analyzes that experience. With respect to formulation, he speaks of a lack of elaboration of programs and projects, of coordination among diverse goals, and of provision of qualified staff and techniques. He mentions the absence of the definition of resources necessary to the financing of the plan and the inadequate quantification of sectorial and national goals due to the lack of reliable statistical information. Finally, he notes the failure to coordinate the annual budget with the multi-year plans. He sees the problems of execution as beginning in the absence of coordination between the various sectors of the public administration, the failure to develop an operative system of decentralization, the absence of any system of financial and fiscal control over execution, the difficulties imposed by the system of public accounting, and the absence of an adequate program of allocation for the liberation of resources. He ends by pointing to the failure to develop and use an integrated system of political economic tools in a mode compatible with the objective of the plans. The body of the article analyzes national planning experience in Brazil using these lists of errors as rough model of criticism. Several conclusions emerge from this analysis with regard to planning in Brazil and in developing countries, in general. Plans have generally been of little avail in Brazil because of the lack of a continuous, bureaucratized (in the Weberian sense) planning organization set in an instrumentally suitable administrative structure and based on thorough diagnoses of socio-economic conditions and problems. Plans have become the justification for planning. Planning has come to be conceived as a rational method of orienting the process of decisions through the establishment of a precise and quantified relation between means and ends. But this conception has led to a planning history rimmed with frustration, and failure, because of its rigidity in the face of flexible and changing reality. Rather, he suggests a conception of planning which understands it "as a rational process of formulating decisions about the policy, economy, and society whose only demand is that of managing the instrumentarium in a harmonious and integrated form in order to reach explicit, but not quantified ends". He calls this "planning without plans": the establishment of broad-scale tendencies through diagnosis whose implementation is carried out through an adjustable, coherent instrumentarium of political-economic tools. Administration according to a plan of multiple, integrated goals is a sound procedure if the nation's administrative machinery contains the technical development needed to control the multiple variables linked to any situation of socio-economic change. Brazil does not possess this level of refinement and any strategy of planning relevant to its problems must recognize this. The reforms which have been attempted fail to make this recognition as is true of the conception of planning informing the Brazilian experience. Therefore, unworkable plans, ill-diagnosed with little or no supportive instrumentarium or flexibility have been Brazil's legacy. This legacy seems likely to continue until the conception of planning comes to live in the reality of Brazil.
F iscal centralization and decentralization guide Brazilian political life like systolic and diastolic movements. The country’s federation rose as a result of the dismemberment of the unitary state, and not the will of its member states. Economic growth, completely uneven among the regions and concentrated mainly in São Paulo, made it necessary to distribute taxation powers in a differentiated manner. The federation was born decentralized and underwent a centralization process during the years of the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas, which opened a door to industrialization. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
The fast process of urbanization in Brazil in recent decades has generated great discussions on urban reform, public policy and urban management. With 1988 Federal Constitution, these topics are in the spotlight, articulated by the city council as an equal federal entity and common jurisdiction in matters of urban policy. In this area, the question of housing policy becomes central and strategic for the city, as one of the main problems is the provision of adequate housing to the majority of the population. The Statute of the Cities (Estatuto das Cidades) in 2001, confirms this view. According to the National Housing Plan (Plano Nacional de Habitao) (Ministrio das Cidades, 2004), with the decentralization process, the management of social programs, among them the housing, either by themselves or by joining a federal program becomes responsibility of the state and city councils. It is in this context that new sources of financing are created sponsored by the federal government through Caixa Econmica Federal, benefiting both the state and local governments and also a share of the private sector. Therefore, this article will outline the path of housing policies in Brazil, through a survey of policies, plans and federal government programs, observing the neglect given to the planning of cities and the problems caused by unplanned urban expansion.
The aim of this work is to evaluate the results of the housing policy that was introduced as from the mid-1990s, during the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso.The main directives of this policy were the decentralization of actions, the flexibilization of service relating to demand, the formation of partnerships with civilian society, the creation of new sources of financing and the integration of the housing policy with urban policy.As from 1995 laws were changed and programs and sources of financing were created that were a response to the paralysis in which the Brazilian housing sector had found itself since the disbanding of the National Housing Bank (BNH), in 1986.However, old problems persisted: for example, the setting up of funds for financing housing units for low income classes was never put into practice.The use of non-onerous resources was minimal and as a consequence, the distribution of the constructions, both in terms of where and which income band, did not meet the real needs, a fact that has been clearly pointed out in studies on the Brazilian housing déficit.
The objective of this article is to discuss alternatives to finance investments by municipalities. In general, current revenues are insufficient to finance large investments, what brings about the necessity of municipal indebtedness. These could assume different manners, according to the nature of the investment: if it is typically public or if it offers private return. For the first case, we discuss the possibilities of a municipal bond market and, for the second, we discuss project finance and the participation of the private sector.