Aloy Deb Barma
from the release of Joseph Pulinthanath's Bangle (Mathia, 2004) to Jacob Tripura's Song of a Flute (Sumuini Khorang, 2022) becoming a new-wave sensation, films and video-cinemas in a complex sociopolitical milieu are proliferating across the far-flung frontiers of Tripura, Northeast India.1 Joseph Pulinthanath's feature-film narrative combines mainstream Bollywood love-story tropes with distinctly Tripuri2 elements that include local customs and folk beliefs, the isolated Tripuri village setting, and the use of the Indigenous Kokborok language. Jacob Tripura's award-winning Kokborok-language short establishes its independence from commercial Indian cinema of various sorts through its powerful minimalist story that takes audiences into the world of an impoverished Tripuri husband and father who is thoughtlessly killed as he returns from the local marketplace to his remote home, exposing the dark underbelly of corrupt political forces. These productions serve as a prism through which the multifaceted dimensions of society, culture, and language are refracted. As screen media assume new forms, interface with evolving technologies, and interweave the intricate threads of linguistic diversity, the cinema landscape of Tripura emerges as a microcosm of a dynamic cinematic ecosystem marked by Kokborok, the primary Indigenous tongue, reverberating alongside Bengali, the Indic language spoken by the non-Indigenous majority in the state as well as West Bengal, parts of Northeast India, and Bangladesh, to create a unique linguistic heterogeneity. Although rooted in specific cultural legacies, the confluence of the Kokborok and Bengali languages in locally produced Tripuri cinema3 reveals deeply ingrained historical narratives that reflect the region's sociopolitical metamorphosis.This article explores the intricacies surrounding the emergence of effervescent film culture in Tripura, where the locally produced Kokborok- and Bengali-language films and music videos serve as profound articulations of identity, political-cultural struggles, resistance, and hybridity. The discussion uses Tripuri cinema as an umbrella term to analyze Kokborok-language and Bengali-language screen productions, which exist alongside features, short films, and music videos in other languages to constitute the array of cultural texts produced and consumed in Tripura, irrespective of the natives’ linguistic dispositions. Employing the overarching banner of Tripuri cinema to describe the provincialized work in a region historically relegated to the shadows of canonical Indian cinema, this article sheds light on the production, distribution, and extensive consumption of small-scale locally produced Kokborok- and Bengali-language films and music videos—or, in Appadurai's (198) and Larkin's (407) terms, “parallel modernities”—that flow outside the confines of traditional theatres, cater to linguistically defined audiences, and are characterized by unique infrastructural and narrative strategies. In doing so, the discussion illuminates the other fragmented but multifaceted industrial and cultural practices that have orchestrated Tripuri cinema's recent manifestations, which involve both emulations of and challenges to mainstream Hindi cinema and the evolving negotiations between industry demands and the infrastructure that sustains them.The lacuna in scholarship concerning Kokborok and Bengali films in Tripura prompted the article's research, which was conducted at Jadavpur University, India,4 and involved archival sources and materials such as VCDs, DVDs, and digital formats, complemented by interviews with key industry figures, including acclaimed filmmaker Joseph Pulinthanath, cinematographer Sandip Debbarma, film scholar and filmmaker Prajapita Debroy, and photographer-filmmaker Alston Kalai. These discussions illuminate the fascinating dynamics of the Kokborok and Bengali film cultures, revealing technical inconsistencies and filmmaking strategies, as well as issues of representation, specificities of language, and popular forms. They show that modern technology's widespread availability and affordability have empowered aspiring filmmakers in marginalized locales. However, Tripura's homegrown film industry remains relatively unorganized, which necessitates identifying key elements that shape its narrative and aesthetic ecosystems amid organizational challenges.Considering questions of cultural hybridity,5 the article delves into how Tripuri Kokborok-language and Bengali-language films navigate tradition and modernity, while simultaneously borrowing from and defying prescribed Bollywood cinematic norms. In subsequent sections, the article examines the role of Tripuri films and music videos in preserving cultural heritage, destabilizing conventional narrative structures, and serving as catalysts of resistance to established cinematic patterns. Through a combination of film analysis, ethnographic observation, and interviews with key stakeholders of the industry, the article sheds light on the evolving landscape of Tripuri cinema, emerging trends, and contemporary practices; the role of infrastructure in the production, distribution, and exhibition of these audiovisual narratives; and how technological advancements redefine the aesthetics, narratives, and impact of local productions in Tripura. Emphasizing the convergence of technology, economics, politics, and culture, the study positions Tripuri cinema within the larger discourse of Indian cinema to generate a new historiography of Indian films on the periphery, one that centers marginalized screen productions that talk back.Sharing borders with the international territory of Bangladesh to the north, south, and west and with the Indian states of Assam and Mizoram to the east, Tripura, India's third-smallest state, reflects a complex fabric of diverse political and cultural experiences, comprising as many as nineteen Indigenous and several non-Indigenous communities that interact both harmoniously and contentiously with the mainstream national culture. Throughout history, Tripura has been a wellspring of cultural abundance and diversity, stemming from an amalgamation of various dialects, languages, and cultures fostered by the state's diverse ethnic groups and subgroups. From the ancient rhythms of folk music to the evolving choreography of Indigenous dances, Tripura's cultural continuity unfolds as a dynamic narrative, resonating through the ages. Historically, the region's demographics have exponentially shifted; where the Indigenous Tripuri communities, who were the original inhabitants of Tripura, once dominated, they are now reduced to approximately 30 percent. In contrast, the non-Indigenous Bengalis constitute a substantial 70 percent (approximately) of the population, according to the 2011 census.6 This demographic inversion, however, does not diminish the historical significance of Tripura as a cultural hub, tracing back to its early Sanskritization7 and interactions with Bengal. The royal court of Tripura, a historical bastion of cultural patronage, fostered the growth of music, dance, poetry, literature, painting, theater, and photography, albeit initially in Bengali due to the absence of a script in the Indigenous Kokborok language. Despite this, the cultural resilience of Tripura endures, exemplified in the making of the first feature-length film of Tripura in Kokborok, Longtharai (Dipak Bhattacharya, 1986), by a Bengali native. The film depicts a Jhumia8 romance in the scenic landscapes of the state's Longtharai hills, showcasing the convoluted interplay between cultural diversity, demographic shifts, and the evolving artistic expressions of the region (Barma 8).The initial wave of Kokborok-language films in the late 1980s and 1990s explored the representation of Indigenous communities and the challenges faced in the wake of globalization. The Peak of Life (Langmani Haduk, Ruhi Debbarma, 1993) exemplifies this trend while also exploring the complexities of patriarchal norms in a Tripuri society. Inspired by the conventions of social/family melodramas in Hindi cinema, this film set a precedent for Kokborok-language productions that challenged the status quo and reflected the changing times.At the same time, native to Tripura and distinct from its larger counterparts in West Bengal (Tollywood) and Bangladesh (Dhallywood), the Bengali-language Tripuri cinema emerged in the early 1990s with Transformation (Rupantar, Debasish Saha, 1991). The film, borrowing conventions from West Bengal's Tollywood cinema while retaining a raw Tripuriness,9 echoes local concerns about sustaining folk performative traditions at meager wages against the sweeping tides of modernity and urbanization.Although Bengali-language films from Tripura share similarities with Bengali films from West Bengal and Bangladesh in terms of narrative conventions, aesthetic diversity, and filmmaking techniques, they also reflect the cultural nuances and historical trajectories of Bengali-speaking communities across the region. These films serve as mirrors to society, reflecting the hopes, struggles, and aspirations of the Bengali people. The use of music, folk melodies, and traditional songs enhances emotional impact and cultural authenticity, while visual storytelling techniques, cinematography, lighting, and mise-en-scène create evocative imagery and convey poetic symbolism. Nonlinear narratives, flashbacks, and character backstories add depth to the emotional core of the films, forging a tripartite narrative bridge that mirrors cultural motifs within the Bengali-speaking community, both nationally and internationally (Barma 26, 37–40). It is worth noting that Tollywood, rooted in Kolkata's rich cinema heritage since the 1920s, is celebrated for its aesthetics, diverse genres, and preservation of Bengali culture and the long-standing influence of Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) on art-house as well as commercial cinemas. On the other end of the spectrum is Bangladesh's distinctive Dhaka film industry, which reflects its intricate cultural journey through Bengali-language Bangladeshi films, narrating national struggles and sociopolitical evolution, since the Tripuri films also an role in and to the state's exemplified by the of film and by the Bengali in the region. The elements the cultural and cinematic forging a cultural heritage and that Bengali-speaking communities across and a of on Tripura's film distribution, industry that the Tripuri film industry an of to feature-length films a and an of to to and the industry has a in the of music which have from to on the to approximately music videos and video-cinemas in recent In of this filmmakers in Indigenous local languages from challenges in which to on through a The for has these local to films that with not audiences, script and and popular with diverse that are of contemporary Bollywood In these small-scale films and music videos traditional elements of local culture, and with contemporary of popular culture to for cinema in Tripura are to and into the of the local Tripuri films for with mainstream Hindi films, other productions, and films, of Tripuri cinema is an of Hindi cinema and not (Barma these local screen productions, by traditional cinema as well as and national while to local norms. They to and digital such as narratives from about historical and contemporary of the and political The local productions in and These narratives on between and and are with in local with from and romance to melodramas that reflect the of society, and the faced in with modernity, and In to the of preserving Indigenous identity, these films a for as they in filmmaking these films not and techniques, but also the of cinema, established and and cultural in is a multifaceted across various such as and The of Indian cinema culture the and traditions The the and cultural expressions of in to the and and of marginalized Indigenous local In this Tripuri films in language that remains in the to the Indian Bengali films from Tripura that with mainstream Bengali cinema and Bollywood is a for to films in Indian languages, such as films in the Kokborok Bengali languages from Tripura, to the historical of and cultural against the Indian these small-scale productions, and the of and at the of the as a of Indian the dynamics of Kokborok and Bengali film within Tripura, is to the sociopolitical and ethnic that have on this region. Tripura, historically as Tripura was characterized by its and royal which the for the region's demographics and the subsequent emergence of media forms. The state was by Indigenous who to traditional of marked by practices such as and The of the of Bengali who both language and to the region. This not to cultural but also and the of Bengali and was to the state's status and Tripura of to demographic in the region that were by the Bengal of which by the the distinct West Bengal, with a Bengali-speaking population, and Bengal, which into Bangladesh, with a majority The of Bengali to in with Tripura emerging as a for in the This of by the and of the Indigenous by the subsequent in political and and in a in Tripura's demographic the established and within these communities and for independence against to the sociopolitical milieu of Tripura. In as and the was to and Tripura a profound As the of Tripura, the Tripura on and the state was into the Indian Bengali to the state's language, while Kokborok, reflecting the of the Indigenous Tripuri as a Indigenous language. In Kokborok was as one of the native languages of Tripura, but the one to challenges in literature, and cinema Bangladesh in to the of Bangladesh and profound for Tripura, as an of Bengali-speaking into the state, now in the This demographic not the demographic but also established Bengali as a language for and this Bengali in Tripura, Indigenous languages This linguistic in a on Tripuri cinema narratives, storytelling techniques, visual aesthetics, and and cultural In this historical and sociopolitical the emergence of Kokborok and Bengali films and music videos in Tripura takes on new as the demographic and the of Bengali and Kokborok languages set the for interactions between these linguistic and cultural in the of These media not a of the changing landscape but also a for these communities to and in a world and parts of Tripura serve as primary of to the which Tripuri cinema, of Kokborok and Bengali films and music is In Tripura, in many other local in such as and film initially involved struggles that due to by technological in the exhibition industry have the of Tripuri such as that media texts the various of have been and has been by digital in the the audiovisual industry, in the of Kokborok Bengali films, the a in and The film industry in Tripura small-scale which commercial aspirations on a (Barma and In the to and affordability of digital and film the of a of and from diverse These by a profound for film This to local including popular local and for for music, for in these films and music The use of from the and is not due to the of that a majority of and in the industry have and the of the industry, within the local film to a of for including local and of of a for The use of traditional and these are from music and from the the which reveals the absence of an The of filmmaking marked the from and to such as As a popular film is in homegrown within the from conventional practices is the use of which local to and for songs in the films the revealing popular visual cultures, industrial and the of This evolution, exemplifies the of Tripuri with a of and digital to a distinct audiovisual is to that Northeast a long-standing of film and by diverse in as well as the infrastructure of cinema remains with a in of Tripuri cinema, the of at in the state of in the This between the historical tradition of film and exhibition across the region and with to cinema, and of films, which in an of cinema in Tripura a narrative of not the state's sociopolitical but also the between the local and the as the emerging on the of films in and digital as in the emergence of and such widespread audiovisual practices the to both the region and the cinema as a of Tripuri films is by and with a such as and short films and music Kokborok-language film such as and The have been by Kokborok the and the Tripura and the of the state These the rich of Indigenous Tripuri communities, serving as of narratives from and elements of cultural Bengali-language films for by the of and the of Tripura, and political including of the This the role that and political in a region's cultural The for Bengali-language films and the growth and of these the of political to the dynamics Tripura's film industry and questions about concerning cultural representation, and political emergence of and music videos the of in Tripura's digital These audiovisual a for from to showcasing music videos narratives, with a This to as as by a of in while groups of digital for both the and the has emerged as a in Tripura. 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However, Tripuri cinema, its and a the in film has not into a in This is as and the of in the industry and that depth and for and as strategies. This in contemporary Tripuri films, reflects the evolving of filmmaking and in Kokborok- and Bengali-language Tripuri films and music videos distinct cinema characterized by storytelling and Kokborok filmmakers are to Indigenous and traditions as they a unique of storytelling that Indigenous narratives with mainstream In contrast, Bengali-language Tripuri films navigate a between the cinematic traditions of Tollywood and mainstream Bollywood in industry from Bengali films produced in West Bengal with popular Bollywood and tropes and strategies. This of in narratives that bridge the between and mainstream cinema, audiences a distinct cinematic Tripura's Bengali films are also for with reflecting to local culture and storytelling traditions (Barma with Kokborok these films with a of including as in Pulinthanath's The Kokborok-language Tripuri films also from popular Indigenous of the as exemplified by and The issues such as Joseph Pulinthanath, depicts the of Indigenous in Tripura from to for the of a Tripuri cinema to romance with The Peak of Life Debbarma, and are explored in and Tripura Tripura, These films navigate contemporary as by which unfolds against the of the In romance in while takes in Saha, and Debbarma, and in films such as Debasish Saha, 2022) and as with Debbarma, the of The Debbarma, and of elements of and and 2022) into the complexities of cultural texts a to and the beliefs, and traditions that the of Tripura's cultural amid the of the cultural is by the of and Indigenous films Tripuri films popular a that mainstream that and and are in films that and in terms of and Despite technical and the of these Tripuri films a in technological and cultural practices within the aspiring to mainstream Hindi cinema the of in recent has Kokborok- and Bengali-language film in Tripura. of Tripuri music videos reveals the use of visual of Indian popular culture, the that have to the and the from Hindi cinema that romance tropes where in and and with However, a is in contemporary Tripuri music where and are songs set amid and and are in music videos such as and a of contemporary Kokborok-language Tripuri music videos songs and from Hindi songs with These productions include and of these are and a of while is a for an these music videos use as a to the as simultaneously and empowered through These norms of and Kokborok, and language with This trend reflects a in which commercial industrial traditional cultural as in the that are with and an of Debroy, Tripura's commercial film industry remains of Hindi cinema and Bollywood in the of Tripuri is deeply rooted in traditional and heritage, of the concerns about the of mainstream Indian culture on Indigenous and of of Tripuri reveals that culture is a In the influence of culture is while in popular Indian culture has its on Tripura's traditional of The of the digital and is for this cultural As reveals in Tripura, are on and Hindi songs films in Tripura this from Bollywood and Indian cinema with and and narratives in local culture, and are explored in films, Joseph to the for homegrown and the contemporary to the of the on technological has in the to to audiences, a distinctive cinematic and the of cinema to as filmmakers have the for a to cinema in Tripura, filmmakers to from of Tripuri films are of Tripuri cinema is at a not that of the culture are to produced is original Kokborok and Bengali films and videos in the of Bollywood of as the of redefine to and that reflect distinct questions about the challenges Tripuri filmmakers in original narratives and cultural specificities distinct from Tripuri films such as of and the to the of the original narrative while into native languages with visual of popular culture and that is of the intricate dynamics of and in this the by these Kokborok- and Bengali-language Tripuri films is not a of but also a of strategies, including on and media such as and to videos and have popular by audiences into the filmmaking and that of practices bridge the historical between cultural and a through media and to and about an and a culture local and Kokborok- and Bengali-language Tripuri films navigate a between traditional storytelling and to a diverse while both and mainstream cinematic the of and modernity, local Tripuri media resilience in and involve the of traditional elements with contemporary nuances to folk traditions to not but also as new Tripuri cinema is a to cultural emerging from and cultural interactions with Bollywood and Tollywood and reflecting a trend of local with and popular culture. filmmakers and media various cultural elements through and the with Bollywood and Tollywood a role in the Indigenous and film These productions how digital films produced and to and from of Indian culture reflects its through its expressions in music, visual and However, with the of technological and audiovisual media are in texts that with questions of In the digital of the an in Tripuri cinema, the of cultural and technical that conventional and Hindi cinema norms. The of filmmaking in Tripura to audiovisual practices that include films, traditional forms, narrative cinema, music and new media Tripuri cinema's with larger film a where are and diverse narratives are of contemporary Kokborok and Bengali films reveals the of filmmaking and in Tripura, to light a distinctive audiovisual landscape that and a on the of mainstream Indian cinema, Kokborok-language and Bengali-language films from Tripura have a distinct narratives that diversity, and of that the confines of cultural These media productions serve as dynamic of evolving within Tripura, showcasing the of local who and cultural borrowing to not and but also talk back to film