Purpose This study aims to develop and evaluate a blockchain-enabled traceability framework capable of improving circular steel recovery and reducing embodied carbon within Tata Steel’s supply chain. Study Blockchain technology is increasingly being explored as a digital enabler for circular economy practices and low-carbon industrial supply chains. In the steel sector, fragmented documentation systems, limited material traceability and inefficient scrap recovery mechanisms continue to constrain circularity and embodied carbon reduction, particularly within the Indian construction industry. Despite growing interest in blockchain-enabled traceability, limited research has examined its application within steel supply chains using a case-grounded and quantitatively modelled approach linking traceability improvements with circular steel recovery and embodied carbon reduction. Design/Methodology/Approach A single-case explanatory research design combined with secondary-data-based scenario modelling was adopted using publicly available Tata Steel sustainability disclosures, industry benchmarks and validated emission factors. The proposed framework integrates QR/RFID-enabled batch identities, Internet of Things (IoT)-assisted verification systems, smart contracts and artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted dashboard visualisations to model improvements in traceability and closed-loop recycling performance. Findings Scenario modelling indicates that traceability coverage could improve from approximately 42% to 98%, while verified scrap reuse could increase from 60% to 88%. Using an emission avoidance factor of 1.35 tCO2 per tonne of recycled steel and a conservative annual scrap throughput assumption of 8.0 Mt, the framework estimates a feasibility-oriented embodied carbon reduction of approximately 3.0 MtCO2/year. Originality/Value The study proposes a Tata Steel-specific blockchain circularity framework demonstrating how digital provenance systems can strengthen transparent material governance, enhance circular steel recovery and support feasibility-oriented embodied carbon reduction pathways within industrial steel supply chains. Research Limitations/Implications The findings are based on secondary-data-driven scenario modelling and should therefore be interpreted as feasibility-oriented estimates rather than empirically validated operational outcomes. The framework provides a basis for future empirical assessment and sensitivity analysis under alternative industrial and policy conditions. Practical Implications The framework provides a conceptual decision-support approach for improving batch-level traceability, scrap verification, closed-loop recovery, environmental reporting and supply-chain accountability through blockchain-enabled systems. Social Implications Improved material provenance and verification can strengthen transparency and accountability among supply-chain actors and support more trustworthy circular material governance.
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and blockchain may provide a viable approach to tackle persistent operational and informational challenges in cleaner production. This conceptual review synthesizes existing literature and presents an integrated AI-IoT-blockchain framework mapped across the four sequential stages of cleaner production: source reduction, process control, end-of-pipe treatment and recycling, and full-chain traceability. The literature indicates that IoT enables real-time sensing, AI drives predictive and prescriptive analytics, and blockchain ensures tamper-proof record-keeping and stakeholder trust. Together, these technologies may help address long-standing barriers including fragmented data, delayed responses, and a lack of verifiability. Despite challenges such as high costs, technical fragmentation, and organizational resistance, several emerging strategies have been proposed in the literature to address these challenges. These include modular deployment, federated learning, permissioned blockchains, and regulatory sandboxes. The framework’s underlying architecture appears transferable across sectors, subject to industry-specific adaptation, supporting sustainable manufacturing, the circular economy, and low-carbon development.
Katarina Dimić‐Mišić, Shailesh Singh Chouhan, Michael Gasik, Milica P. Marčeta Kaninski · 7 authors
Electronic waste (e-waste) is among the fastest-growing global waste streams, with 62 million tonnes generated in 2022 and only 22.3% formally recycled, while generation is projected to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030. Fragmented record-keeping, weak chain-of-custody controls, and limited transparency enable illegal dumping, fraudulent recycling claims, and loss of recoverable materials. This paper presents a narrative literature review of blockchain and distributed ledger technologies applied to electronics and e-waste management. Following a structured search and relevance screening of major scientific databases, publisher platforms and grey literature (last search was run on 15 July 2026), 110 sources published between 2017 and 2026 were thematically synthesized across four domains: technological developments, sustainability and circular-economy implications, traceability and compliance mechanisms, and e-waste management applications. Blockchain delivers value primarily through an auditable chain-of-custody built on three pillars: standardized item and batch identities, standardized lifecycle event schemas, and licensed-actor attestations supported by off-chain evidence anchored on-chain. Recurring design patterns include permissioned consortium networks, hybrid storage, and role-based access control. Persistent barriers include data-input integrity, scalability, governance, and cost. Blockchain immutability protects stored records but cannot correct falsified inputs, making trusted data capture and governance the decisive factors for reliability. Adoption should be evaluated against measurable indicators, such as traceability completeness, audit-time reduction, fraud rates, and verified material recovery, rather than assumed benefits.
Tomi Setiawan, Muhammad Farras Samith, Muhammad Hammam Mughits, Aulia Fitrah Uswatun Hasanah · 5 authors
This study synthesizes Web3-based governance strategies in closed supply chains for electric vehicle batteries in Indonesia, focusing on reducing environmental impacts and improving resource efficiency. It includes a theoretical framework and case studies to address the overall issues in empirical validation and contextual adaptation. This paper aims to expand the governance framework, compare digital product passport implementations, identify incentive mechanisms including CSR integration, quantify regulatory models, and analyze practical case studies. An integrated analysis of multidisciplinary literature, using theoretical modeling, game theory, and empirical case studies, reveals that blockchain-based digital product passports improve transparency and lifecycle traceability but face challenges in large-scale implementation and data standardization. Incentive mechanisms based on game-theoretic frameworks and CSR promote resource efficiency, although empirical evidence in Indonesia remains limited and its social dimensions remain underexplored. A comparative regulatory analysis highlights the relevance of EU policies as a benchmark while also highlighting regulatory gaps and enforcement challenges in Indonesia. The case studies demonstrate the feasibility of Web3 technologies in improving environmental outcomes and operational efficiency, but scalability and stakeholder coordination require further investigation. These findings highlight the need for an integrated, multi-stakeholder governance model that bridges theoretical innovation with practical implementation in Indonesia's unique socio-regulatory context. This study informs future research and policy development to optimize sustainable battery supply chains through digital governance and circular-economy principles.
Ruba Islayem, Haya R. Hasan, Ahmad Musamih, Khaled Salah · 5 authors
The leather supply chain comprises numerous organizations and stakeholders, particularly when sustainability aspects are taken into account, making it a complex system. The complexity inherent in such systems can lead to inaccurate information, lack of transparency, and limited data provenance. Moreover, there has been a surge in the call for sustainable practices within leather production, propelled by growing environmental consciousness and ethical considerations. In this paper, we address these challenges by proposing a blockchain-based solution designed to ensure trusted and secure traceability and sustainability throughout the entire life cycle of leather products. By harnessing the inherent capabilities of Ethereum smart contracts and blockchain technology, such as decentralization, immutability, data integrity, and transparency, we guarantee the secure and reliable tracing of materials from the farm to the final consumer. Moreover, we provide proof of sustainability by which certification agencies monitor, audit, and approve the sustainable processes and practices carried out by the different stakeholders at all stages of production to ensure compliance with industry standards and regulations. The paper presents the blockchain-based system architecture, implementation, and validation of algorithms and smart contracts. It also evaluates the security measures and cost-effectiveness of the system to offer valuable insights into its robustness and efficiency. We have made the developed smart contracts code publicly available on GitHub.
• Blockchain-based system enables policy-grade traceability for plastic credits. • Smart contracts enforce automated compliance with EPR and ESG frameworks. • DApp supports decentralized oversight, reducing audit burden on regulators • System logs immutable offset records aligned with circular economy targets. • Architecture offers scalable digital infrastructure for waste policy integration. Plastic credit schemes are increasingly adopted to mitigate plastic pollution, yet existing systems remain centralized, opaque, and prone to double counting and fraud. This study proposes and validates a plastic credit system that leverages blockchain technology aimed at enhancing transparency, traceability, and accountability in plastic recovery efforts. A modular three-layer architecture was implemented, comprising a user interaction layer, a blockchain execution layer, and a utility layer for metadata and analytics integration. The system employs two smart contracts on the Polygon Proof-of-Stake (PoS) mainnet using Ethereum standards: ERC-20 for fungible tokenization of plastic credits and ERC-721 for non-fungible certificate issuance. Functional testing confirmed successful execution of token lifecycle operations. Stress testing across 5000 sequential transactions yielded stable performance, with average confirmation times of 5.29 s for fungible token operations and 5.59 s for non-fungible processes. A decentralized application (DApp) was developed to support role-based interaction, credit traceability, and certificate validation. User evaluation returned a high usability score (86.4%), while benchmarking against existing platforms demonstrated improved auditability, automation, and stakeholder control. These findings indicate that blockchain infrastructure can enable decentralized, tamper-resistant plastic credit systems. The proposed model provides a scalable foundation for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) compliance and plastic waste traceability, which could potentially support the credibility of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting and supporting circular economy transitions across diverse policy and economic contexts.
This study presents SmartMix Web3, a framework combining ensemble machine learning and blockchain technology to optimize low-carbon concrete design. It addresses two key challenges: (1) the limitations of conventional models in predicting concrete performance, and (2) ensuring data reliability and overcoming collaboration issues in AI-driven sustainable construction. Validated with 61 real-world experiments in Cameroon and 752 mix designs, the framework shows major improvements in predictive accuracy and decentralized trust. To address the first research question, a stacked ensemble model comprising Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)–Random Forest and a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) was developed, achieving a 22% reduction in Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for compressive strength prediction and embodied carbon estimation compared to traditional methods. The 29% reduction in Mean Absolute Error (MAE) results confirms the superiority of Extreme Learning Machine (EML) in low-carbon concrete performance prediction. For the second research question, SmartMix Web3 employs blockchain to ensure tamper-proof traceability and promote collaboration. Deployed on Ethereum, it automates verification of tokenized Environmental Product Declarations via smart contracts, reducing disputes and preserving data integrity. Federated learning supports decentralized training across nine batching plants, with Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)-256 checks ensuring privacy. Field implementation in Cameroon yielded annual cost savings of FCFA 24.3 million and a 99.87 kgCO2/m3 reduction per mix design. By uniting EML precision with blockchain transparency, SmartMix Web3 offers practical and scalable benefits for sustainable construction in developing economies.
The global coffee supply chain is a complex multi-stakeholder ecosystem plagued by fragmented records, unverifiable origin claims, and limited real-time visibility. These limitations pose risks to ethical sourcing, product quality, and consumer trust. To address these issues, this paper proposes a blockchain and IoT-enabled framework for secure and transparent coffee supply chain management. The system integrates simulated IoT sensor data such as Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) identity tags, Global Positioning System (GPS) logs, weight measurements, environmental readings, and mobile validations with Ethereum smart contracts to establish traceability and automate supply chain logic. A Solidity-based Ethereum smart contract is developed and deployed on the Sepolia testnet to register users and log batches and to handle ownership transfers. The Internet of Things (IoT) data stream is simulated using structured datasets to mimic real-world device behavior, ensuring that the system is tested under realistic conditions. Our performance evaluation on 1000 transactions shows that the model incurs low transaction costs and demonstrates predictable efficiency behavior of the smart contract in decentralized conditions. Over 95% of the 1000 simulated transactions incurred a gas fee of less than ETH 0.001. The proposed architecture is also scalable and modular, providing a foundation for future deployment with live IoT integrations and off-chain data storage. Overall, the results highlight the system’s ability to improve transparency and auditability, automate enforcement, and enhance consumer confidence in the origin and handling of coffee products.
Haya R. Hasan, Khaled Salah, Ahmad Mayyas, Ahmad Musamih · 7 authors
Greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprints have surged dramatically, with the transportation industry being a major contributor. While the UN aims to adopt zero-emission vehicles by 2040, the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) raises sustainability concerns about sourcing earth metals for batteries. Digital passports have emerged to track a product’s lifecycle, composition, certifications, origin, and recyclability. However, existing EV battery passport systems lack sufficient traceability, immutability, auditability, and are prone to manipulation due to their centralized nature. In this paper, we propose a decentralized blockchain-based digital passport for EV batteries using composable Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) to ensure traceable, tamper-proof records that promote transparency across the supply chain. Our solution enables standardized data sharing and interoperability while integrating off-chain storage for efficiency. We evaluate four cathode chemistries using ten sustainability Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to compute an overall sustainability score per battery. We present a system architecture, smart contracts, and supporting algorithms are presented, with testing and validation in a simulated environment. A cost and security analysis confirms affordability and resilience against known attacks. Our approach offers practical value for sustainability assessments, regulatory audits, carbon footprint tracking, and circular economy initiatives by providing immutable, component-level provenance and real-time KPI updates. Limitations include simulation-based validation, lack of stakeholder testing, and scalability challenges in live deployments. While we address some of these, via Layer 2 scaling and modular smart contract design, further research is required to validate adoption in real-world EV supply chains. The smart contract code is made publicly available on GitHub.
Lawrence Martin Mankata, Prince Antwi-Afari, S. Thomas Ng
The construction industry's shift to a circular economy has been hindered by multiple challenges. The emergence of blockchain has however demonstrated promising potential in overcoming these barriers. Nonetheless, there is limited research regarding the system implementation dynamics of blockchain-based circular economy applications within the construction supply chain. This paper proposes a blockchain-based construction supply chain framework for advancing circular economy in the construction industry . Systematic Evidence Synthesis (SES), prototyping, and case study triangulation approaches are adopted to review, experiment, and validate the findings. Relevant exploratory and experimental cases are identifed from Scopus and Web of Science databases for the SES process . The initial findings highlighted the main implementation domains, to include material passports, waste trading, and reverse logistics. Hyperledger and Ethereum are further identifed as the leading implementation platforms for developing prototypes. The key challenges identified from prototype development included, limited simulation samples, limited performance scalability, and uncertainty with return on investment . To address the challenges and gaps identified, a blockchain-based circular construction supply chain (BCCSC) framework is proposed. Modules from the proposed framework are experimented through a proof-of-concept prototype to demonstrate feasibility. Finally, selected cross-industry cases were triangulated to draw conceptual parallels and potential drawbacks in implementation. Through a blockchain-based web marketplace, stakeholder interactions in the construction supply chain can be deepened to support circular business models. Furthermore, the framework's modularization allows for easy scalability and practical implementation. Recommendations are made towards research in cost reduction and enhanced collaboration strategies, as well as developing full-scale modules to demonstrate end-to-end functionality.
Karim Moawad, Ahmad Musamih, Assia Chadly, Ahmad Mayyas · 8 authors
The urgency to combat climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions has led to increased global demand for Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. Such batteries are widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles. However, their adoption encounters challenges related to mining ethics, supply chain transparency, sustainability, and waste management. This paper proposes a blockchain-based solution that addresses these challenges in the Li-ion battery supply chain. Using the ERC-721 standard for Non-fungible tokens (NFTs), we tokenize all items/materials in the supply chain, ensuring data management, transparency, and ownership control. We integrate the Ethereum blockchain with the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) to handle NFT metadata and large-sized files, reducing storage costs and network congestion. We develop ten smart contracts (SCs) to facilitate various Li-ion supply chain functionalities, managing items/materials data and ownership. By leveraging NFTs, our solution promotes circular economy principles by facilitating secondary market trading, asset reuse, and sustainable recycling practices. We introduce a structured decision framework that empowers stakeholders to navigate operational and ethical challenges effectively. The effectiveness and practicality of the solution are demonstrated through system architecture, sequence diagrams, algorithms, and testing results. Furthermore, we assess our proposed solution’s affordability, efficiency, security, and generalizability across different industries.
Abstract The adoption of blockchain technology in supply chain management has gained significant attention due to its potential to enhance transparency, traceability, and accountability. However, successful blockchain implementation requires careful consideration of governance, regulatory, and ethical dimensions. Through a narrative literature review, this paper examines how blockchain can be effectively leveraged in sustainable supply chains, focussing on governance challenges and policy considerations. The review reveals significant gaps in current understanding of blockchain governance, including a lack of standardisation, limited integration between technical and institutional aspects, and insufficient attention to ethical implications. The analysis provides a comprehensive examination of the regulatory landscape, identifying critical areas requiring policy attention and suggesting pathways for implementation. The paper contributes to the literature by synthesising the current understanding of governance challenges and proposing policy directions for addressing these gaps. As blockchain technology continues to evolve, the paper emphasises the need for balanced governance approaches that promote innovation while ensuring responsible implementation across supply chain ecosystems.
Karim Moawad, Ammar Hummieda, Ahmad Musamih, Khaled Salah · 5 authors
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become a cornerstone of modern technology, where they serve as the power source for a wide range of applications, including electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems. However, rapid production growth has introduced challenges regarding end-of-life management, particularly with waste disposal, resource recovery, and environmental sustainability. Inefficient recycling often leads to valuable materials like cobalt, lithium, and nickel being discarded in landfills, which exacerbates resource scarcity and poses environmental and health risks. To address these issues, there is a critical need for more efficient, transparent, and accountable systems for the collection, recovery, and recycling of LIBs. In this paper,A blockchain and Non-Fungible Token (NFT)-based solution is proposed to enable circular recycling and material recovery. This system improves transparency, traceability, and accountability throughout the battery lifecycle. The smart contracts (SCs) source code is made publicly available on GitHub.
Ensuring traceability, compliance certification and cold chain integrity in frozen food supply chains remains a persistent challenge, exacerbated by fragmented monitoring systems, manual audits and vulnerability to data manipulation. This study presents a conceptual design for a blockchain-enabled compliance architecture that addresses these challenges by integrating real-time Internet of Things (IoT) data acquisition, permissioned blockchain-based data storage and smart contract-driven compliance automation. Following a Design Science Research (DSR) methodology, the research focuses on the initial phases (problem identification, objective specification and artefact conceptualization) providing a structured foundation for future demonstration and evaluation. The proposed design is structured across three interdependent layers: (1) a Data Acquisition Layer that ensures continuous and secure sensor-based monitoring; (2) a Data Storage Layer that leverages blockchain for immutable recording and transparent auditability; and (3) an Application Layer that integrates smart contracts for automated compliance enforcement and user interfaces for stakeholder interaction. By translating regulatory compliance requirements into a modular, blockchain-based design, this work contributes to the theoretical grounding of decentralized regulatory infrastructures in agri-food systems. The proposed architecture embodies design principles that may inform similar traceability systems across other regulated supply chains. Although empirical validation is forthcoming, the conceptualization serves as a scaffold for future DSR iterations and contributes to design knowledge in the domain of digital compliance architectures.
Abstract The Bangladesh Readymade Garments (RMG) industry faces increasing pressure to enhance sustainability and transparency across its complex supply chain. This research develops a blockchain-based Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM) framework to address these challenges. Through a structured review of existing literature, the study identifies key sustainability challenges in GSCM and explores how blockchain can help overcome these challenges, thereby providing a foundation for developing a blockchain-based GSCM framework. The proposed framework facilitates the end-to-end monitoring of sustainability practices, from the procurement of raw materials to the production of finished garments, by utilizing the immutability and transparency of blockchain technology. Smart contracts enforce predefined sustainability criteria, ensuring stakeholder accountability while providing real-time data to drive continuous improvements in resource efficiency and overall sustainability performance. This research addresses a critical gap in the existing literature by proposing a context-specific framework that integrates transparency and sustainability functionalities within a blockchain-based GSCM system. The framework aligns with relevant Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and offering a novel approach to achieving a more transparent, accountable, and sustainable future for the Bangladesh RMG industry.
As a distributed ledger technology, blockchain demonstrates broad prospects in battery recycling due to its decentralized, transparent, and secure characteristics. However, practical implementation faces challenges including technical barriers, cost investments, regulatory adjustments, and data privacy protection. This paper comprehensively introduces blockchain applications in battery recycling, explaining its principles, advantages, and real-world deployment. It analyzes existing problems in current recycling systems, such as data fragmentation, inefficient reverse logistics, and regulatory failures. Furthermore, blockchain-IoT integration applications, including full lifecycle data management, intelligent monitoring, and logistics optimization, are discussed. Innovative business models are proposed, such as decentralized recycling platforms, data-driven frameworks, and sharing economy models. The importance of establishing unified industry standards is emphasized, along with an outlook on future development directions. Through systematic analysis, this study offers insights for researchers and practitioners and serves as a reference for promoting sustainable development in the battery recycling industry.
Based on the average lifespan of power batteries, it is projected that the volume of power battery recycling in China will, exceed 70,000 tons by 2030. However, the current power battery recycling industry still faces issues such as low efficiency, uneven technological levels, and a large number of small workshops.In the field of blockchain, the government included blockchain in the "14th Five-Year Plan" in 2021. Blockchain technology has been applied in finance, insurance, and other fields. Its decentralized nature and information traceability capabilities can significantly improve the efficiency of power battery recycling, but at the same time, it may incur certain costs.Through empirical analysis, the feasibility and advantages of the blockchain-based closed-loop supply chain model for power battery recycling are verified. The results show that this model can improve recycling.
With rapid urban population growth, particularly in developing countries, solid waste management has become challenging as the process has proved ineffective and dilapidated. However, the limited resources, outdated technology and inefficient systems of traditional waste management limit inappropriate resources, leading to unsanitary conditions, health risks and environmental hazards. The rest of this study elaborates on Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET) as a transformational answer to Smart Solid Waste Management Systems (SSWMS). This approach complements blockchain's data management capability with the VANET's real time communication while augmenting waste management operation's transparency, efficiency and security with the secure and immutable data provided by blockchain. A framework for the said dependency proposal is proposed which leverages Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) to allow for data handling to be decentralized without a central authority so that waste collection data is spread across vehicles, roadside units (RSUs) and central control systems.
Zacharoula Sereti, Emmanouil Mavrikos, Christos Cholevas, George E. Tsekouras
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are unique digital assets powered by blockchain technology, enabling secure and decentralized ownership and monetization across diverse industries. However, their energy consumption is primarily linked to energy-intensive consensus mechanisms and has raised significant environmental concerns. This survey provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolution and use of token standards and blockchain workflows in developing green NFT technologies, emphasizing the transition to energy-efficient consensus mechanisms. By seamlessly blending technological acumen with a discerning gaze, the current analysis suggests that, apart from the blockchain consensus mechanisms, the environmental impact of NFTs should also be investigated and linked to certain blockchain factors such as interoperability, scalability, sustainability, and Layer-2 scaling solutions. As such, the current endeavor offers a perspective on the symbiotic relationship between blockchain and NFTs by identifying pathways to balance innovation with environmental stewardship. Finally, this paper offers valuable insights into the role of green NFTs in fostering sustainable digital economies by exploring under-represented applications in various economic and industrial domains.