Blockchain Papers

S. Priyan, A. Brindha, Piratdin Atabayev, Bikash Paul

No abstract is available for this record.

Katarina Dimić‐Mišić, Shailesh Singh Chouhan, Michael Gasik, Milica P. Marčeta Kaninski · 7 authors

Electronic waste (e-waste) is among the fastest-growing global waste streams, with 62 million tonnes generated in 2022 and only 22.3% formally recycled, while generation is projected to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030. Fragmented record-keeping, weak chain-of-custody controls, and limited transparency enable illegal dumping, fraudulent recycling claims, and loss of recoverable materials. This paper presents a narrative literature review of blockchain and distributed ledger technologies applied to electronics and e-waste management. Following a structured search and relevance screening of major scientific databases, publisher platforms and grey literature (last search was run on 15 July 2026), 110 sources published between 2017 and 2026 were thematically synthesized across four domains: technological developments, sustainability and circular-economy implications, traceability and compliance mechanisms, and e-waste management applications. Blockchain delivers value primarily through an auditable chain-of-custody built on three pillars: standardized item and batch identities, standardized lifecycle event schemas, and licensed-actor attestations supported by off-chain evidence anchored on-chain. Recurring design patterns include permissioned consortium networks, hybrid storage, and role-based access control. Persistent barriers include data-input integrity, scalability, governance, and cost. Blockchain immutability protects stored records but cannot correct falsified inputs, making trusted data capture and governance the decisive factors for reliability. Adoption should be evaluated against measurable indicators, such as traceability completeness, audit-time reduction, fraud rates, and verified material recovery, rather than assumed benefits.

A. Gnanabaskaran, R. Sakthi, T. Nithesh

Food waste and hunger are still side by side in the world today, and tons of unused food are thrown away, meanwhile, many people do not have access to healthy food reliably. The classic systems of donations still rely on the manual inspection, unstructured communication, and weak logistics that tends to result in delays and spoilage as well as, lack of transparency. In this paper, Donato is an AI-based food donation and redistribution platform that will combine automated freshness prediction, traceability supported by blockchain, and intelligent route optimization. The system uses a trained ResNet50 to classify donated food into freshness categories, keep donation and delivery records on an authorized blockchain to be tracked tamper-proofly and create dynamic delivery plans to increase urgency to minimize spoilage changes. It has been experimentally shown that Donato is better in classification accuracy, trust, because of immutable records, and pickup latency is lower than that of a manual process. These findings indicate the promising opportunities of deep learning, distributed ledger technologies, and optimization of logistics integration to enhance efficiency, safety, and scalability of the redistribution network of food.

Pesarlanka Devendra Babu, Javvaji Mounik Prasad, A Sharma, Dr Arun Malik · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

E. Nsekela, W. Deferme, N. Chacha

Rapid urbanization in Tanzania has increased municipal solid waste generation and placed growing pressure on urban waste-management systems that remain focused mainly on collection, transport, and disposal. Given the high organic fraction of municipal waste generation. This paper examines Resource recovery from municipal waste through cost-effective biogas technologies in Tanzania, focusing on policy and institutional frameworks that support or constrain decentralized municipal organic waste-to-biogas systems that use appropriate standard procedures. The findings show that Tanzania has a broad policy framework for environmental protection, renewable energy, private-sector participation, and resource recovery, but this foundation has not been well translated into practice. Key constraints include fragmented mandates, limited biogas-specific standards, weak organic waste segregation, inadequate financing mechanisms, and insufficient formal inclusion of communities and informal waste actors. The paper argues that improving decentralized biogas implementation requires converting existing policy commitments into enforceable, financed, and locally coordinated municipal resource-recovery systems

Atul Pawar, Shreekant S. Kulkarni, Ashwini Harode, Makardhwaj Kamble · 6 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Andri Dwi Utomo, Jeffry Jeffry, Ahmad Irfandi

This research focuses on the design and development of a blockchain-based plastic waste tracking system aimed at enhancing transparency, efficiency, and accountability in plastic waste management. The system utilizes Hyperledger Fabric as a permissioned blockchain platform and integrates smart contracts to manage transactions between organizations, including waste generators, collectors, sorting warehouses, and final processing warehouses. This system records each stage of the plastic waste journey, from creation to final processing, in a permanent, transparent, and immutable manner. The testing results demonstrate that the system can accurately record the status and history of waste, manage transfers between organizations, and process plastic waste into recycled products. Moreover, the system shows a significant potential for carbon emission reduction, with an estimated reduction of up to 50% compared to traditional plastic waste management methods, such as incineration or landfilling. The study also explores how the implementation of blockchain can support global efforts in mitigating the environmental impacts of plastic waste. The blockchain-based system also provides real-time monitoring, ensuring that each transaction is verified and recorded immediately, contributing to more effective management. The implementation of smart contracts further guarantees that waste-related activities are executed automatically when predefined conditions are met, reducing administrative overhead. The study also explores how the implementation of blockchain can support global efforts in mitigating the environmental impacts of plastic waste. Ultimately, this system presents a scalable solution that could be adopted in various regions to improve global waste management strategies.

Andry Alamsyah, Said Fikri Naufal Ramdhani

• Blockchain-based system enables policy-grade traceability for plastic credits. • Smart contracts enforce automated compliance with EPR and ESG frameworks. • DApp supports decentralized oversight, reducing audit burden on regulators • System logs immutable offset records aligned with circular economy targets. • Architecture offers scalable digital infrastructure for waste policy integration. Plastic credit schemes are increasingly adopted to mitigate plastic pollution, yet existing systems remain centralized, opaque, and prone to double counting and fraud. This study proposes and validates a plastic credit system that leverages blockchain technology aimed at enhancing transparency, traceability, and accountability in plastic recovery efforts. A modular three-layer architecture was implemented, comprising a user interaction layer, a blockchain execution layer, and a utility layer for metadata and analytics integration. The system employs two smart contracts on the Polygon Proof-of-Stake (PoS) mainnet using Ethereum standards: ERC-20 for fungible tokenization of plastic credits and ERC-721 for non-fungible certificate issuance. Functional testing confirmed successful execution of token lifecycle operations. Stress testing across 5000 sequential transactions yielded stable performance, with average confirmation times of 5.29 s for fungible token operations and 5.59 s for non-fungible processes. A decentralized application (DApp) was developed to support role-based interaction, credit traceability, and certificate validation. User evaluation returned a high usability score (86.4%), while benchmarking against existing platforms demonstrated improved auditability, automation, and stakeholder control. These findings indicate that blockchain infrastructure can enable decentralized, tamper-resistant plastic credit systems. The proposed model provides a scalable foundation for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) compliance and plastic waste traceability, which could potentially support the credibility of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting and supporting circular economy transitions across diverse policy and economic contexts.

Rosario Gilmary, N Manvizhi, M Abinanthida, H. B. · 5 authors

Efficient management of construction waste is essential for achieving sustainability in building projects. However, current waste tracking systems often lack waste transparency, traceability, and trust among stakeholders. This study suggests a blockchain-based framework to improve how construction waste information networks operate. By using distributed ledger technology, the system allows safe data sharing among stakeholders, while minimizing data manipulation and inefficiencies. A prototype was created and tested using simulated construction waste scenarios. The testing showed better data accuracy and traceability. Results showed a 35% increase in waste audit reliability and a major decrease in reporting delays. The proposed method provides a scalable and tamper-proof solution for sustainable waste management. Future work will look at real-world implementation and how it can fit with regulatory platforms..

F. A. Samiul Islam

Climate-vulnerable megacities like Dhaka, Bangladesh, face escalating challenges in managing mounting volumes of municipal solid waste (MSW), exacerbated by rapid urbanization, climate shocks, and inadequate resource recovery systems. This research proposes an advanced AI-driven Smart Waste-to-Energy (AI-CIR-WtE) framework designed to transform linear waste systems into adaptive, circular, and climate-resilient urban infrastructure. Integrating artificial intelligence, life cycle modeling, digital twins, and blockchain, the framework offers a comprehensive pathway to optimize waste valorization, emissions reduction, and sustainable energy generation in resource-constrained settings. The proposed system leverages Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks for forecasting waste generation by ward and season, coupled with Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) for multi-objective optimization of waste routing, energy efficiency, and environmental impact. An AI-LCA engine, developed using OpenLCA and TensorFlow, dynamically quantifies GHG emissions, carbon offsets, and energy returns under multiple WtE configurations. Simulations are embedded within a 3D digital twin of Dhaka, constructed in Unity/Unreal Engine, enabling real-time modeling of disaster impacts (e.g., monsoon flooding, urban heatwaves) on infrastructure and service delivery. To ensure transparency and verifiability in carbon credit mechanisms, a blockchain-enabled MRV (Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification) layer tracks waste origin, conversion outputs, and emission reductions across the value chain. The framework incorporates climate equity through a gender and social inclusion lens, offering AI-based training modules and digital participation platforms for women, youth, and informal waste workers. Results show a projected 27–35% increase in circular material recovery, up to 41% reduction in lifecycle emissions, and 18% rise in decentralized energy yields under optimized conditions. The AI-CIR-WtE model demonstrates strong alignment with UN SDGs, Verra’s Verified Carbon Standard, and investment criteria from the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and World Bank climate finance facilities. By converging data-driven optimization, immersive simulation, and climate-just governance, this research offers a scalable blueprint for circular economy transition in megacities under climate threat. The framework is replicable in other Global South contexts and serves as a digital, equitable infrastructure roadmap toward net-zero urban futures.

Said Fikri Naufal Ramdhani, Andry Alamsyah

Plastic pollution poses an escalating global threat, with Indonesia ranked among the largest contributors to marine plastic leakage due to inadequate waste management systems. Although blockchain technology has been increasingly applied to enhance transparency in various sectors, its direct integration into plastic waste management remains underexplored. This study proposes a blockchain-based cyberphysical system (CPS) that utilizes fungible tokens (FTs) to represent verified plastic recycling activities and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) as immutable certificates of plastic offset achievements. Smart contracts were developed in Solidity and tested on a local Ganache blockchain by executing 100 sequential minting transactions. Validation results demonstrated an average confirmation time of approximately 1.388 seconds per transaction, indicating strong system performance under continuous load. The proposed model offers a decentralized, verifiable approach to plastic credit management, supporting Indonesia’s efforts toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 12 and 14.

Noman Raza Sial, Muhammad Abdul Qyyum, Apoorv Lal, Fengqi You

Bitcoin, the pioneering decentralized currency, has transformed global finance. However, its expanding network drives greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and land consumption, posing sustainability challenges. This study introduces a novel methodological framework to assess these impacts across participating nations, integrating the ReCiPE 2016 midpoint (H) method for life cycle impact assessment of offsite environmental footprints and mathematical modeling for onsite environmental footprints, using open LCA and the Ecoinvent v3.10 database in a cradle-to-gate approach. The findings reveal that the United States, China, and Kazakhstan, responsible for 65% of global Bitcoin mining, are the largest contributors to its environmental impact. The United States records a water footprint of 419 million cubic meters under high computational load, enough to meet the annual water needs of Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, and Bhutan. China leads with a 900 km 2 land footprint, while Kazakhstan emits over 25 MtCO 2 e greenhouse gas emissions, driven by coal reliance. These findings offer policymakers region-specific insights to balance Bitcoin’s economic benefits with its environmental costs, emphasizing the need for technological advancements and sustainable energy shifts. The study also calls for future research into pinpointing the Bitcoin miners’ locations and the true computational mix of the global Bitcoin network.

Farhin Faiz, Nwakamma Ninduwezuor-Ehiobu, Uwaga Monica Adanma, Nko Okina Solomon

Blockchain technology has emerged as a transformative tool for enhancing transparency and accountability in waste management systems, contributing significantly to sustainability goals. This paper explores how blockchain can revolutionize waste disposal practices by providing an immutable, decentralized ledger that tracks waste from generation to disposal. The use of blockchain ensures that all transactions and movements of waste materials are recorded in a transparent and tamper-proof manner, addressing challenges related to data integrity and fraud in waste management. Blockchain technology facilitates real-time monitoring and verification of waste disposal processes. Each stage of the waste management chain, from collection and transportation to processing and final disposal, is documented on a distributed ledger accessible to all stakeholders. This transparency not only reduces the risk of illegal dumping and misreporting but also enables more effective regulatory compliance. Stakeholders, including waste management authorities, businesses, and the public, can access reliable data on waste management practices, fostering greater accountability. Moreover, blockchain supports the implementation of circular economy principles by tracking the lifecycle of recyclable materials. It enables efficient sorting and recycling by providing detailed records of material types and quantities, thereby improving recycling rates and reducing landfill dependency. Smart contracts on blockchain platforms can automate transactions and enforce compliance with waste management policies, further enhancing operational efficiency and reducing administrative burdens. The adoption of blockchain in waste management also promotes stakeholder engagement and trust. Public access to real-time data and historical records empowers communities to participate in and monitor local waste management efforts, leading to increased public awareness and responsibility. Despite its potential, the implementation of blockchain in waste management faces challenges such as integration with existing systems, scalability, and data privacy concerns. Addressing these challenges requires collaboration between technology developers, waste management professionals, and policymakers. In conclusion, blockchain technology offers significant benefits for sustainable waste management by improving transparency, accountability, and efficiency. Its potential to transform waste disposal practices highlights the need for continued exploration and development in this field.

Kailash Kumar, Abdullah Faisal Al-Fadi Al-Sharif

Introduction; Bridging the digital divide requires the provision of affordable, fair and quality ICT. With nearly two-thirds of the world’s population still offline, there is a need to provide affordable web access for everyone. For developing countries, increasing the popularity of information and communication technology has become the most important factor in reducing poverty. The danger of electrical and electronic waste disposal contains hazardous substances, but most of the electrical and electronic equipment is still disposed of in an unhealthy environment in the field development area, affecting the level of contamination in Water, Air and Soil ultimately affecting people’s health. Eliminating E-waste responsibility and protecting the environment is a challenge for countries. Smart cities can solve environmental problems through proper waste management for improving human health, protecting water resources, and reducing pollution. Objective; In this paper, we explore how blockchain technology can help smart cities to manage E-waste by providing consistency, immutability, transparency, and accountability control in a distributed, reliable, and secure manner. We discussed the advantages of blockchain technology in various aspects of E-waste management, such as instant tracking and monitoring, E-waste disposal and E-waste management regulation compliance, proper disposal management, E-waste management, and material handling, etc. All examples of disposal services, but in our study we have found that there is no fool proof system to check the disposal of E-waste whether it has been disposed off Fully or Partially. We mainly focused on the tracking of E-waste management system for 100% safe and eco-friendly disposal from the originating point of E-waste to end disposal point of total disposal. Methods; For this, we have used machine-learning model to find the existing percentage of disposal of E-waste at the end-point which reveals that it is never 100%. And partial disposal of E-waste means we have still partial E-waste around us in different forms, which will be a threat for the society to be indulged in hazardous after effects of randomly dumping E-waste.Results; After this we have modelled a Disposal Tracking System(DTS) using blockchain technology to create an E-waste data storage as Decentralized Shareable Ledger (DSL) which records the quantity and state of E-waste data from its originating point to a different level of disposal unit and finally reflect the balance of E-waste data as NIL at the end of last disposal point.Conclusion; This system will helpful for safe and ecofriendly E-waste management and it provides complete transparency and traceability of E-waste during the life cycle of complete disposal. After implementation of this system any district or Block or Village authority can ensure to its citizens for E-waste hazards free environment and safety of natural resources

Murray A. Rudd, Matthew Jones, Daniel Sechrest, Daniel Batten · 5 authors

• Novel model links landfills with Bitcoin mining to enhance economic viability. • Bitcoin mining can help finance methane mitigation from low-flow landfills. • Integrative approach monetizes methane destruction. • Strategic use of bitcoin mining may help incentivize rapid scaling of mitigation.

Sulagna Roy, Pankaj R. Kaushik, Pradeep Sangwan, Sunil Herat

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a critical role in addressing solid waste management (SWM) challenges in remote mountain communities, including the ecologically fragile Himalayan region. This study evaluates the impact of Healing Himalayas, an NGO, in Rakchham village, Himachal Pradesh, India. The objectives were to evaluate the effectiveness of Healing Himalayas' decentralized SWM model in promoting stakeholder engagement and resource recovery, assess the role of collaborations between local authorities and the NGO in financing waste management practices, investigate the influence of tourism and seasonal variations on solid waste generation patterns and waste management practices in Rakchham, and material recovery facilities, followed by glass (36.7%), paper/cardboard (18.4%) and metal (4.1%). A fee-based system involving the local village council funded waste operations. Waste generation exhibited significant seasonal fluctuations, with tourism influxes driving increased volumes. Healing Himalayas' initiatives promoted community participation, with over 15 awareness workshops conducted. Key challenges included limited financial resources, inadequate infrastructure, lack of advanced treatment facilities and need for context-specific solutions like efficient wet waste management in cold climates. The study highlights Healing Himalayas' decentralized model's success in fostering stakeholder engagement, behavioural change and resource recovery. The findings inform effective strategies for NGO-led waste management initiatives tailored to remote Himalayan communities.

Himasri Allu, Anjali Bharti, Shashank Mouli Satapathy

This study explores the implementation of a decen-tralized marketplace using blockchain technology for e-waste management. Through stakeholder-driven validation using the proof of stake and on-chain attestation, the platform ensures transparency and accountability in the e-waste supply chain. Integrating the Meta Mask wallet facilitates secure transactions, enhancing user experience and adoption. Results demonstrate a 95% reduction in transaction confirmation time and a 25% cost reduction in Ethereum transactions compared to SWIFT transfers, enhancing economic viability and user engagement. Leveraging blockchain for e-waste management presents a promising avenue for addressing complex supply chain challenges and advancing toward a more sustainable future.

Hongping Yuan, Wenbo Du, Jian Zuo, Xiaozhi Ma

Construction waste management (CWM) and blockchain technology (BT) are two crucial topics for sustainable production and development. As a fundamental infrastructure for artificial intelligence, BT enables real-time, reciprocal, and immutable information provision in tracing construction waste and holds a significant potential to advance CWM. However, the barriers to adopting BT in CWM and their impact on CWM practices remain unclear. Therefore, this study aims to identify BT adoption barriers in CWM, assess their criticality, and clarify their correlations through a fuzzy empirical analysis. Results show that, due to interdependence, actions on one or some of the barriers can have a closed-loop impact. The findings suggest that the government and the stakeholders have a critical influence on the further adoption of BT in CWM. This exploratory study advances sustainable construction by clarifying those BT adoption barriers and providing implications to integrate BT into CWM practices.

Xiaozhi Ma, Hongping Yuan, Wenbo Du

The construction industry is a significant contributor to global carbon emissions, primarily due to the generation of substantial construction and demolition waste. However, the current practices in construction and demolition waste management (CDWM) face various information management challenges that undermine their overall effectiveness. Correspondingly, this research proposes the integration of blockchain technology as a strategic solution to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of CDWM. Despite the potential of blockchain in revolutionizing CDWM, research in this area remains limited. To address such a gap, this study adopts a design science action research methodology to integrate the use of blockchain technology into CDWM. Specifically, this study has creatively introduced the blockchain-based data supply chain to address the principal–agent problem in CDWM and develop a novel blockchain-enabled framework for CDWM. Additionally, a six-layer system architecture for the blockchain-based CDWM information system has been developed. This integration holds the promise of streamlining and empowering CDWM processes and thereby improving the administration and regulation of CDWM. Notably, the utilization of blockchain technology also presents an innovative opportunity for carbon reduction and offsetting within the construction industry. This research makes a substantial contribution to the field by introducing a novel approach to address information management challenges in CDWM, thereby promoting sustainable practices in the construction industry.

Said Gulyamov

Waste management is a growing challenge globally, with major impacts on social health, greenhouse gas emissions, and sustainable development. This paper provides an in-depth analysis on the potential of emerging technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain platforms, big data analytics and artificial intelligence to enable more intelligent, sustainable waste management systems. A robust methodology of literature review, real-world case analysis, deduction and critical reasoning was utilized. The key findings are: (1) logistics optimization through machine learning driven dynamic routing and load optimization, reducing costs by 25-40%, (2) GHG emission reductions above 15% from optimized transportation, (3) 40%+ improvements in recycling rates and landfill diversion through waste stream automation and citizen engagement apps, and (4) over 50% reduction in waste contamination enabled by automated waste characterization using image recognition. However, barriers like infrastructure costs, lack of capabilities, and change management constrain adoption. Targeted pilots, open data sharing, and partnerships can drive implementation. Intelligent waste systems are critical for cities to cost-effectively tackle the growing waste challenge while meeting sustainability goals.

Yanhong Wang, Shuqiao Dai, Zhigang Jiang, Qingshan Gong

This paper addresses the challenge of integrating discarded products as pivotal raw materials in the remanufacturing process. The pervasive lack of transparency in the origin of discarded products and the prevalent issues of diminished recycling value in existing market recycling models underscore the need for a transformative solution. In response, this study introduces a novel remanufacturing-centric recycling framework that harnesses blockchain (BC) technology and reverse logistics (RL). This framework orchestrates transactions within the recycling market by systematically tracking the quality attributes of products. The proposed model innovates by deploying dynamic game theory to devise recycling pricing strategies tailored for recycling entities. Additionally, the incorporation of an appraisal mechanism for recycled product quality enhances the capability of recycling entities to acquire high-value items. The model’s viability and pioneering attributes are corroborated through a case study involving a retailer’s engine recycling strategy. The empirical findings validate the model’s potential in creating a standardized market for recycling high-value products, thereby empowering remanufacturers to access superior-quality discarded materials through optimized recycling channels.

Saravjeet Singh, Rishu Chhabra, Jatin Arora

No abstract is available for this record.

Ala Abdulsalam Alarood, Adamu Abubakar, Abdulrahman Alzahrani, Faisal S. Alsubaei

The adoption of recycling and proper disposal techniques for electronic waste is crucial in advancing sustainable development. The traditional approaches of motivating people for collection of electronic waste are often insufficient due to inadequate methods reaching out, given incentives, calculating appropriate incentives associate to the task of gathering the electronic waste and a lack of transparency in the entire process. Insufficient collection of electronic waste could result in the release of numerous harmful substances into the environment. Prior research studies have been carried out to tackle the issue of electronic waste management in a broad sense. The findings of those studies indicated diverse strategies, each of which is relevant solely to a restricted range of electronic waste reprocessing circumstances. The current study has presented a proposed technique for incentivizing tasks and activities associated to collection of electronic waste through the adoption of vector space technique. Blockchain smart contact technology, has been used to implemented the strategy. The method used involves various well defined mapping of tasks, nature of activities, and their magnitude in order to derived an incentive. Some scenarios for the calculations of incentives are presented, and the findings reveals the based case is by utilizing weighting scale scheme where each tasks and activities are mapped to its associated inventive rather than providing fixed incentive values. Ethereum was used as digital token for each unit of incentive. This concept has contributed in encouraging personal accountability in the management of e-waste collection in order to cultivate sustainable behaviors for a long term solution.

Md Mahmudul Hasan, Rajesh Kumar Plamthottathil, Jabed Morshed, Dipto Sarkar · 6 authors

Overconsumption of resources is a global issue. To deal with resource depletion and mitigate impending crises, the circular economy (CE) solution provides an ecosystem by reducing waste via the reuse, repair, refurbishment, and recycling the existing materials and products. However, as the complexity of supply chains is increasing an effective CE management is very crucial. We want to address this issue by performing a feasibility study with AI-enabled blockchain technology using our developed customised NFT platform, TrackGenesis NFT, along with the OpenSea.io architecture for CE management to decrease transaction costs, enhance performance and communication along the supply chain, and reduce carbon footprints. Circulogy is an e-waste management system that can respond to supply chain challenges using blockchain technologies. A supply chain can get complicated very quickly, considering that each product component has its supply chain. In our proposed solution, blockchain provides a solution to this by establishing transparency in every node of the product's lifecycle and users can exchange or sell/buy NFTs. There are multiple copies of the audit trail for every transaction using blockchain, which will provide the ability to track and reuse/recycle Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE).