The rapid expansion of institutional repositories (IRs) has heightened concerns about digital rights management (DRM), copyright protection, content authenticity, and long-term digital preservation, particularly in developing countries where institutional and technological capacities remain constrained. This study examines the feasibility of adopting blockchain technology as a DRM solution for Ghanaian institutional repositories and evaluates whether its application is transformative or largely aspirational. Guided by the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework and Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) theory, the study employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design that integrated quantitative survey data with qualitative interviews with ICT directors, repository managers, academic librarians, systems librarians, and faculty members from eight Ghanaian universities. The findings reveal low DRM maturity across institutional repositories. 40% of participating institutions lacked formal DRM mechanisms. Although awareness of blockchain technology was moderately high among respondents, substantial disparities existed across stakeholder groups, with ICT personnel demonstrating higher levels of understanding than faculty members and academic librarians. Institutional readiness for blockchain adoption remained generally poor, constrained by inadequate infrastructure, funding limitations, insufficient technical expertise, weak policy frameworks, and low organizational preparedness. Despite these limitations, stakeholders expressed strong support for blockchain’s potential to strengthen tamper-proof authorship verification, enhance content authenticity and integrity, improve transparency through immutable audit trails, and automate copyright management through smart contracts. The study further suggests that capacity building, phased implementation strategies, open-source platforms, interdisciplinary collaboration, and institutional policy alignment are critical pathways for integrating blockchain into institutional repositories. The study concludes that blockchain-enabled DRM in Ghanaian IRs is a promising, emerging innovation and that its successful implementation depends on sustained investment in digital infrastructure, institutional reforms, technical training, and supportive regulatory frameworks.
To make the payment system robust and user friendly, decentralized based Scan and Pay system need to be designed. This paper integrates the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) of India with the Solana-based Blockchain to make the payment system decentralized. Solana offers a high throughput and low-cost based decentralized infrastructure which is combined with the simple and reliable UPI system. So, the proposed system enables cryptocurrency transactions linked to UPI while maintaining user friendliness, scalability, and regulatory compliance. The designed method uses a secure architecture powered by smart contracts and modular design. It offers a viable bridge between centralized financial networks and emerging Web3 ecosystems. Proposed Solana-based UPI is compared with the Non-Solana based UPI which is using Blockchain. Results show that there is improvement of 91% in transaction latency and 95% in transaction cost as compared to the Non-Solana based UPI system.
Smart contracts manage high-value digital assets, making their security a critical priority. In this work, we present a preliminary ecosystem analysis of how smart contract vulnerabilities are currently classified, disclosed, and managed across academia and industry. Our findings reveal the fragmented nature of Web3 security, characterized by a history of attempted classification schemes and a lack of proper vulnerability disclosure. We propose several hypotheses for this divergence from traditional software standards, including ideological decentralization, reputation management, and misaligned financial incentives. A case study of Uniswap illustrates these challenges, revealing inconsistent reporting and the difficulty of verifying vulnerability data. Ultimately, this work serves as a foundational step toward establishing unified methodologies for the detection, management, and disclosure of smart contract vulnerabilities.
This study presents the design and implementation of a blockchain-based decentralized portfolio management system that enables secure, immutable, and transparent storage of user records. The system is developed using Ethereum smart contracts and evaluated within a testing environment consisting of Remix IDE, Ganache, and MetaMask. The proposed architecture allows authorized actors to create records while enabling users to access and verify their data through blockchain-based identity mechanisms. Experimental results, based on gas consumption and insertion-time measurements, demonstrate that although smart contract deployment incurs relatively high initial costs, routine operations such as record insertion and retrieval remain efficient and predictable. The findings highlight the practical feasibility of the proposed system, while also revealing challenges related to scalability, cost variability, and system usability.
Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric are architecturally heterogeneous‚ with Ethereum using the Ethereum Virtual Machine to execute Solidity contracts with order-execute transactions and pseudonymous ECDSA-based identity․ As Fabric runs Go chaincode under an execute-order-validate enforcement model‚ with MVCC conflict detection‚ X․509 certificate-based identity management‚ and an explicit key-value state API‚ smart contracts cannot be written to run on both Ethereum and Fabric without major duplication of effort‚ namely‚ maintaining two separate codebases‚ conducting two separate security audits‚ and manually re-implementing complex code․ This thesis aims to both design and test a Universal Intermediate Representation (UIR) for the migration of smart contract logic from Ethereum to Hyperledger Fabric in a structured, auditable and repeatable way. In the spirit of Design Science Research (DSR) (Peffers et al., 2007), this study investigates five portability barriers to the extent that they can be identified (PB-1 to PB-5) and relates them to six design requirements (R1 to R6). Based on this, two-stage prototype pipeline is created in Python, a front-end based on Solidity contracts and a back-end which generates Hyperledger Fabric Go chaincode. In three canonical case studies‚ SimpleStorage‚ Escrow and SimpleToken‚ we evaluated the translation with respect to four dimensions: feature translation rate‚ semantic approximation accuracy‚ barrier coverage and compilation success․ Out of the 14 categories of Solidity features‚ 6 (43%) are completely abstractable‚ 4 (29%) can be approximated with semantic gaps SG-1 to SG-2‚ and 4 (29%) are architecturally non-portable at the contract level․ All three Hyperledger Fabric Go chaincodes built using the UIR approach compiled successfully with go build‚ using Go version 1․22․5‚ showing the feasibility of the approach with Go․ The thesis is not about the fact that UIR is a production ready tool. The pipeline has no total automation; in the 3 case studies, the processing of function bodies was done manually in Stage 1. Also, the prototype currently only approximates 256-bit integers. The actual contribution is conceptual: It suggests a structured, auditable way to detect and overcome portability issues from Ethereum to Hyperledger Fabric. The master thesis consists of 94 pages; it contains 9 figures, 28 tables, 2 appendices, and 42 references.
The rapid proliferation of digital media necessitates resilient paradigms for managing, authenticating, and preserving static and dynamic 2D data. Since centralized repositories are vulnerable to tampering and pure blockchain storage remains economically prohibitive for high-fidelity multimedia, this comprehensive review demonstrates that a hybrid on-chain/off-chain architecture constitutes the most viable solution. By anchoring immutable metadata on robust ledgers while offloading heavy graphical payloads to distributed networks like IPFS and Arweave, this paradigm optimizes both security and cost. For static 2D formats, current research emphasizes cryptographic provenance, digital rights management, and tamper detection via perceptual hashing. Conversely, dynamic 2D formats require advanced architectural optimizations, including decentralized streaming protocols, progressive rendering, and complex temporal metadata indexing. Despite these technological advancements, widespread adoption is severely impeded by critical bottlenecks such as network scalability limits, fragmented cross-chain interoperability, and the absence of universal benchmarking datasets. To bridge the gap between experimental frameworks and enterprise integration, future research must prioritize developing interoperable metadata schemas, Layer-2 performance optimizations for high-bandwidth streaming and integrating privacy-preserving cryptographic primitives like Zero-Knowledge Proofs. Ultimately, this paper provides a foundational roadmap for architecting scalable, decentralized digital asset management ecosystems.
Context: The growing adoption of distributed and industrial-grade applications built on blockchain infrastructures has intensified the need for systematic approaches to manage the lifecycle of long-running systems, where governance, auditability, and performance constraints must coexist. Objectives: This paper presents TRUST , a lifecycle-oriented system architecture for the governed evolution and integration of smart contract based components. Methods: The architecture incorporates on-chain governance, version traceability, rollback support, and code provenance to enable accountability and observability across successive deployments in multi-stakeholder systems. A full 2 4 factorial evaluation was conducted by treating governance, versioning, provenance, and ABI handling as independent system factors and measuring their effects on latency, throughput, and gas consumption. Results: The results show that governance and provenance introduce controlled and predictable overheads, while compact ABI handling improves throughput and reduces gas consumption by more than 20%. Conclusion: These findings indicate that a lifecycle-oriented architecture can balance accountability and efficiency in governed smart contract applications.
Τα τελευταία χρόνια, οι Αποκεντρωμένες Εφαρμογές (Decentralized Applications - DApps) γνωρίζουν σημαντική ανάπτυξη, και η ικανότητά τους να διαχειρίζονται ψηφιακά περιουσιακά στοιχεία υψηλής αξίας έχει οδηγήσει σε σημαντική καινοτομία σε τομείς όπως η αποκεντρωμένη χρηματοοικονομική (Decentralized Finance - DeFi), η διακυβέρνηση (governance) και η διαχείριση της εφοδιαστικής αλυσίδας (supply chain management), με τη δημιουργία διαφόρων δικτύων blockchain για την κάλυψη της ζήτησης για τέτοιες υπηρεσίες. Παράλληλα, έχουν αναπτυχθεί διάφορες μεθοδολογίες για την προστασία αυτών των δικτύων από κακόβουλους παράγοντες (malicious actors) που επιχειρούν να εκμεταλλευτούν αδυναμίες (vulnerabilities) που υπάρχουν στα έξυπνα συμβόλαια (smart contracts) τα οποία εκτελούν μια προκαθορισμένη επιχειρηματική λογική (business logic), με σκοπό να κλέψουν μεγάλα χρηματικά ποσά μέσω αυτών. Αν και το οικοσύστημα του Ethereum επωφελείται από μια ώριμη σουίτα εργαλείων ασφαλείας, αυτά είναι κυρίως σχεδιασμένα για τον εντοπισμό συντακτικών αδυναμιών (syntactic vulnerabilities), παραλείποντας συχνά σφάλματα που προκύπτουν από την απόκλιση μεταξύ του επιδιωκόμενου σχεδιασμού ενός έξυπνου συμβολαίου και της υλοποίησής του στην αλυσίδα (on-chain implementation), επιτρέποντας έτσι στους επιτιθέμενους να χειραγωγήσουν τη λειτουργικότητα του συμβολαίου για κακόβουλο όφελος. Νέα δίκτυα blockchain και γλώσσες προγραμματισμού, όπως το δίκτυο Sui και η γλώσσα του Sui Move, έχουν δημιουργηθεί προσφέροντας νέες δυνατότητες και χαρακτηριστικά, αλλά ταυτόχρονα εισάγουν νέες κατηγορίες κινδύνου. Ορισμένα παραδείγματα είναι η διαρροή δυνατοτήτων (capability leakage) και οι παραβιάσεις του προτύπου μάρτυρα (witness pattern violations), οι οποίες είναι αόρατες στις παραδοσιακές ταξινομίες ασφαλείας που βασίζονται στο Ethereum, λόγω των διαφορετικών υποδομών και προγραμματιστικών μοντέλων. Η πρόληψη τέτοιων επιχειρηματικών αδυναμιών (business vulnerabilities) απαιτεί κατάλληλη τυπική μοντελοποίηση και επαλήθευση (formal modeling and verification) της επιδιωκόμενης επιχειρηματικής διαδικασίας εντός των έξυπνων συμβολαίων, διασφαλίζοντας ότι όλες οι πιθανές αλληλεπιδράσεις παραμένουν συνεπείς με την αναμενόμενη συνολική συμπεριφορά του συστήματος. Η παρούσα έρευνα αντιμετωπίζει αυτό το πρόβλημα αναπτύσσοντας ένα τυπικά θεμελιωμένο, καθοδηγούμενο από οντολογίες πλαίσιο ανάλυσης ασφάλειας (formally grounded, ontology-driven security analysis framework) ειδικά για τη γλώσσα Sui Move, κωδικοποιώντας τις σημασιολογικές σχέσεις μεταξύ των δομών κώδικα (code constructs) της Sui Move, των προτύπων ασφαλείας (security patterns) και των κατηγοριών αδυναμιών. Για την επίτευξη αυτού του στόχου, η παρούσα διατριβή ακολουθεί τη μεθοδολογία Design Science Research (DSR), προκειμένου να γεφυρώσει το χάσμα μεταξύ της αρχιτεκτονικής πρόθεσης υψηλού επιπέδου (το «γιατί» - the why) και των ελαττωμάτων κώδικα χαμηλού επιπέδου (το «πώς» - the how). Τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από μια συστηματική μελέτη χαρτογράφησης (systematic mapping study) και τη σύγκριση των γλωσσών προγραμματισμού Solidity και Sui Move χρησιμοποιούνται για τη δημιουργία δύο τεχνουργημάτων (artifacts): 1) ενός οντολογικού πλαισίου έξι επιπέδων (six-layer ontological framework) για τη Sui Move και 2) ενός εργαλείου ανάλυσης (Sui Move Analyzer). Όσον αφορά το οντολογικό πλαίσιο, περιλαμβάνονται η χαρτογράφηση γραμματικής (grammar mapping), η ταξινόμηση ασφαλείας, τα αρχιτεκτονικά πρότυπα και η τυπική μοντελοποίηση συμπεριφοράς (formal behavioral modeling), σε συνδυασμό με τη δημιουργηθείσα ταξινόμηση Sui-Unified Weakness Classification (SUWC), η οποία κατηγοριοποιεί τα ελαττώματα που σχετίζονται ειδικά με την πλατφόρμα (platform-specific defects) σε τέσσερις ομάδες, ευθυγραμμισμένες με μια βιβλιοθήκη τεσσάρων επαληθευμένων σχεδιαστικών προτύπων ασφαλείας (security design patterns) της ενσωματωμένης οντολογίας. Όσον αφορά το δεύτερο τεχνούργημα, αυτό αναπτύχθηκε για να αξιολογήσει την πρακτική χρησιμότητα του οντολογικού πλαισίου, χρησιμοποιώντας μια αρχιτεκτονική διπλής ροής (dual-pipeline architecture) που συνδυάζει την παραδοσιακή εξαγωγή ευρετικών κανόνων (heuristic extraction) με την οντολογική συλλογιστική που βασίζεται σε SPARQL (SPARQL-based ontological reasoning). Χρησιμοποιώντας αυτή τη μεθοδολογία, ο αναλυτής μπορεί να εντοπίσει κινδύνους σε σημασιολογικό επίπεδο (semantic-level risks), ενώ παράλληλα βοηθά τους προγραμματιστές προτείνοντας αυτοματοποιημένες αποκαταστάσεις βασισμένες σε πρότυπα (pattern-based remediations), οι οποίες βασίζονται σε καθιερωμένα παραδείγματα ασφάλειας (security paradigms). Η αξιολόγηση των τεχνουργημάτων ακολουθεί το Framework for Evaluation in Design Science (FEDS), συνδυάζοντας τεχνητή αθροιστική αξιολόγηση (artificial summative evaluation) μέσω ειδικά κατασκευασμένων συμβολαίων με γνωστή αντικειμενική αλήθεια (ground truth), και φυσιοκρατική αθροιστική αξιολόγηση (naturalistic summative evaluation) μέσω της ανακατασκευής μιας πραγματικής εκμετάλλευσης (exploit reconstruction), προκειμένου να διασφαλιστεί τόσο η εσωτερική όσο και η εξωτερική εγκυρότητα (internal and external validity). Σε 14 συμβόλαια Sui Move, 42 περιπτώσεις δοκιμών (test cases) και ένα σενάριο εκμετάλλευσης (exploit scenario), χρησιμοποιούνται 13 ποσοτικές μετρικές που καλύπτουν την ορθότητα (precision, recall, F1-score), την κάλυψη (taxonomy and pattern completeness) και την πρακτική χρησιμότητα (false-positive rate, runtime performance). Η εγκυρότητα και των δύο τεχνουργημάτων αξιολογείται επιπλέον σε πέντε διαστάσεις (μέσου, τεχνική, σχεδιασμού, σκοπού και γενίκευσης - instrument, technical, design, purpose, and generalization), επιβεβαιώνοντας ότι το πλαίσιο αποδίδει σταθερά σε όλες τις στοχευμένες διαστάσεις εγκυρότητας και πληροί την απαιτούμενη αυστηρότητα (rigor) για να κλείσει επαρκώς τον κύκλο DSR.
Samukeliso Mabarani, Mohammad Saidur Rahman, Iqbal Gondal, H. M. N. Dilum Bandara
The tokenization of real-world assets (RWAs) through non-fungible tokens (NFTs) has introduced new opportunities for liquidity, enabling fractional ownership of traditionally illiquid assets. Yet, current NFT fractionalization models remain static, lacking adaptive governance and real-time responsiveness required for managing the dynamic nature of RWAs. This paper presents an Adaptive NFT Fractionalization Framework with Rights Segregation that integrates modular smart contracts, oracle data, and machine learning (ML) insights to enable dynamic rights management. The framework segregates and defines distinct rights, governed through cross-layer decision-making and adaptive rights management that updates allocations based on market data and predictive analytics. Experimental results demonstrate accurate, real-time adjustments of fractional rights, consistent governance execution, and efficient gas utilization across stress and concurrency tests. The findings validate the framework's scalability, responsiveness, and cost-effectiveness, establishing it as a viable approach for adaptive, data-driven management of fractionalized RWAs.
Intellectual Property (IP) transactions play a vital role in the contemporary global economy, encompassing the exchange of intangible assets such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. These assets are fundamental drivers of innovation and economic development across diverse industries. However, conventional methods of managing IP transactions are often characterized by inefficiency, high transaction costs, lack of transparency, and frequent disputes arising from ambiguities in enforcement and contractual obligations. This study examines the potential of blockchain-based smart contracts to address these challenges by enhancing efficiency, fairness, and transparency in IP transactions. Smart contracts, which are self-executing agreements encoded in computer-readable protocols, facilitate automated execution of predetermined contractual terms without requiring intermediary intervention. The integration of blockchain technology with decentralized and secure ledger systems minimizes errors, reduces dependency on intermediaries, and mitigates disputes resulting from cumbersome and unclear procedural mechanisms in conventional IP transactions. Additionally, smart contracts streamline licensing, royalty distribution, and contract enforcement, thereby accelerating transaction processes while ensuring improved security and accountability. Blockchain decentralization further strengthens the protection of intellectual property transactions against unauthorized alterations. Smart contracts also support automated royalty allocation, enabling equitable payment distribution among creators, rights holders, and intellectual property owners. Transparency is enhanced through shared access to accurate transactional information, fostering trust among stakeholders and reducing the likelihood of legal conflicts. Despite these advantages, the adoption of smart contracts in IP transactions faces several practical and legal challenges, including regulatory recognition, enforceability across jurisdictions, compatibility with existing intellectual property frameworks, and privacy concerns associated with confidential transactional data. This article investigates how blockchain-integrated smart contracts can transform intellectual property transactions, with particular focus on improving efficiency, strengthening security, ensuring fair compensation, and promoting transparency. By examining relevant theoretical perspectives, case studies, and practical applications, the study offers insights into the broader implications of adopting blockchain technology for intellectual property management.
Sohel Akhtar, Murat Karakuş, Rukiye Savran Kiziltepe
Smart contracts are a fundamental building block of blockchain platforms such as Ethereum, yet their development and auditing require specialized expertise and remain highly error-prone. The immutability of deployed smart contracts significantly amplifies the consequences of coding mistakes and security flaws. Recent advances in Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise in automating software development and code analysis tasks; however, the reliability of LLM-generated smart contracts and their effectiveness in vulnerability auditing, particularly for Solidity, remains insufficiently explored. In this paper, we present a systematic and automated evaluation pipeline to comparatively assess the performance of open-source LLMs in two critical phases: (i) smart contract generation from natural language specifications, and (ii) smart contract auditing for vulnerability detection. We benchmark multiple open-source models under consistent experimental settings and analyze their correctness, security awareness, and robustness against insecure outputs. Our findings expose significant performance gaps across models and tasks, revealing strengths and limitations of current open-source LLMs in supporting secure smart contract development. This study provides practical insights for researchers and practitioners seeking to apply LLMs to blockchain programming and security assessment.
Syed Abrar Ahmed, Ricardo Correia Bezerra, Simon Lewerenz, Henrique Martins
The EHDS Regulation establishes patient opt-out rights for data use, yet current implementations face fragmented registries and limited tamper-proof mechanisms. In this context, opt-out refers to a patient's proactive right to object to the reuse of their health data for purposes beyond direct clinical care. We propose a distributed ledger technology (DLT)-based architecture to enhance opt-out management. Using design research and regulatory analysis of EHDS and TEHDAS, we developed a proof-of-concept leveraging permissioned DLT, smart contracts, and decentralised identifiers for an immutable registry. This architecture aligns with EHDS requirements for tamper-evident audit trails and cross-border verification. This work bridges regulatory mandates with patient-centric governance across the EU.
This paper presents a Web3-based healthcare system integrated with the Republic of Korea's MyHealthWay platform for secure and user-controlled management of personal health data. The system combines decentralized identifiers, smart contracts, distributed storage, and the HL7 FHIR standard to support decentralized authentication, access control, and interoperability. A conceptual demonstrator, HealthCube, validates feasibility by enabling privacy-preserving health data processing through computation on encrypted data without exposing original information.
Yusuf Tojiri, Maulana Arif Komara, Alfri Adiwijaya, Nasrul Hidayat · 6 authors
This study proposes an IPFS-based system for automatic digital intellectual property registration within Web3 platform environments. The rapid development of digital technology has encouraged the transformation of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection from manual systems to more secure and efficient digital mechanisms. However, current IPR registration processes remain centralized, slow, and vulnerable to data tampering. Based on this issue, this study aims to design and test an automatic IPR registration system using the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) as a decentralized storage solution. This research employs a software engineering method with a prototyping approach that includes the design of a user interface, integration of the IPFS API, implementation of an automatic hash-generation system, metadata storage in a database, and issuance of digital certificates. Testing results show that the system can automatically register digital works, generate unique and consistent file hashes, upload files to IPFS with an average upload time of less than two seconds, and provide global accessibility through a distributed network. In addition, the system is capable of validating the authenticity of a work by matching the hash and metadata listed in the digital certificate. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the use of IPFS in digital IPR registration systems is effective in enhancing security, efficiency, and transparency, although further development is required in relation to integration with national legal frameworks and formal legal recognition.
Dr. Soumya M Anakal, Sharanabasava, Vinayak S Chakki
The global creator economy exceeds $100 billion but remains dominated by platforms such as YouTube, Spotify, and Patreon. These platforms control distribution and monetization, charging high fees, delaying payments, and exercising censorship. To address these issues, a decentralized Web3 Music and Content Monetization Platform is proposed. The system uses blockchain, non-fungible tokens (NFTs), decentralized storage, and crypto wallets to enable creators to upload, mint, and sell their digital content directly to audiences. Each asset is stored on the Inter Planetary File System (IPFS) and represented on the Polygon blockchain as an ERC-721 token. Consumers purchase NFTs via MetaMask, and smart contracts automatically transfer payments to creators, enforcing royalties without intermediaries. A prototype demonstrates NFT minting, wallet-based payments, and content access control, validating the technical feasibility of the approach. Compared with centralized systems, the proposed platform offers instant payments, transparent ownership, and censorship resistance, aligning with similar advancements in decentralized music and publishing platforms. Future work includes exploring multi-chain support, decentralized governance through DAOs, and integrating metaverse applications.
Rohith John Jacob, Shane Jacob Sebastian, Varsha S Panicker, Vishnu Satish · 5 authors
Digital art marketplaces have been expanding rapidly, resulting in a greater focus on issues of ownership verification, copyright infringement, and content tampering. Current blockchain non-fungible token (NFT) systems only keep ownership data on the blockchain, with the media files stored off the blockchain, resulting in a lack of trust in the ownership of assets secured by NFTs. This work proposes a framework for verifying the ownership of digital art in a decentralized fashion, using invisible frequency domain watermarks, cryptographic hash functions, and artificial intelligence (AI)-based semantic checks. This results in a method for embedding ownership directly into the image being protected by an NFT, with the cryptographic fingerprint of the image stored on the blockchain for easy access. An AI-based semantic verification layer provides assurance that ownership can only be confirmed by performing consistent content checks. As has been verified through experimentation, the framework developed will allow owners of digital images to preserve ownership of their images and to securely and decentralized verify ownership.
A novel blockchain-based smart contract framework is proposed and designed to mitigate financial product fraud by enhancing transparency, auditability, and trust in advisory processes. The framework introduces a unique dual-contract architecture that combines product and authorization smart contracts, along with a challenge-response verification protocol that ensures both product authenticity and advisor legitimacy. The system is implemented and tested on the Ethereum blockchain, demonstrating operational feasibility through real-world transaction simulations and a corresponding gas cost analysis. By leveraging immutability, the framework preserves data integrity, while cryptographic signatures enable privacy protection without exposing sensitive data on-chain. It is designed to support multi-institutional environments, allowing various financial institutions to issue products and authorize advisors under a unified, fraud-resistant platform. Experimental results confirm the system’s effectiveness in preventing common fraud scenarios, while maintaining low transaction costs and high security.