Blockchain Papers

Khalid Al‐Khatib, Fares Ayoub, Qais Marji

No abstract is available for this record.

Liviu Ionut Epure

This project presents QoreChain, a novel Layer 1 blockchain architecture that addresses two critical challenges facing distributed ledger technology: vulnerability to quantum computing attacks and inefficient network resource allocation. As cryptographically relevant quantum computers are projected to emerge within 5-10 years, current blockchain infrastructures relying on elliptic curve cryptography face existential security threats. Simultaneously, existing networks struggle with scalability, cross-chain interoperability, and intelligent resource optimization. QoreChain introduces a quantum-native security architecture implementing ML-KEM (Kyber-1024) for post-quantum key exchange with migration pathways to Dilithium and Falcon signatures. Our hybrid classical-PQC bridge protocol enables seamless cryptographic migration without network disruption while maintaining backward compatibility—a capability absent in current blockchain platforms. Beyond quantum resistance, QoreChain integrates artificial intelligence at the protocol level through an Adaptive Intelligence Layer that performs dynamic transaction routing, predictive resource allocation, and cognitive consensus optimization, achieving demonstrable performance improvements: 5,914+ transactions per second with sub-second finality, 40% reduction in finality times during peak loads, and 60% reduction in cross-chain swap slippage through AI-driven liquidity positioning. The architecture comprises three synergistic innovations: (1) a multi-layer scalability framework with AI-driven chain selection routing transactions across main chain, sidechains, and paychains based on value and computational requirements; (2) the QoreChain Consensus Algorithm (QCA) extending Combined Proof of Stake with reputation-weighted validator selection and temporal consensus layering enabling parallel consensus sessions across different time horizons; and (3) comprehensive developer tooling including natural language smart contract generation with cross-chain compilation, automated vulnerability detection using predictive AI, and voice-first accessibility features. We demonstrate QoreChain's practical applicability through integration specifications for enterprise environments (financial services, defense, healthcare), IoT deployments with hardware-optimized lightweight cryptography for resource-constrained devices, and universal cross-chain connectivity supporting Ethereum, Solana, TON, BSC, Avalanche, and Cosmos ecosystems via IBC, LayerZero, and proprietary protocols. Performance benchmarks, security proofs, and economic sustainability models validate QoreChain's viability as future-proof blockchain infrastructure for the post-quantum era.Abstract content goes here

Rodrigo Olivares Órdenes, Pablo Olivares Zúñiga, Benjamín Serrano Barba, Víctor Ríos Tapia

Intelligent infrastructures require control strategies that overcome the limitations of centralized management. This study critically reviews the 2015–2025 literature on the convergence between bioinspired algorithms and distributed decision-making, highlighting their capabilities in decentralization, self-organization, and resilience. Based on an analysis of numerous representative cases, it is evident that Swarm Intelligence and Differential Evolution achieve significant improvements in efficiency and notable reductions in decision latency in power and traffic networks; Artificial Immune Systems strengthen the cybersecurity of critical infrastructures. Challenges remain in scalability, explainability, and ethical governance, which we address with an agenda based on federated Digital Twins and new bioinspired consensus protocols. We conclude that bioinspired algorithms not only optimize daily operations but also enable infrastructures capable of learning and recovery, laying the foundation for more sustainable and user-centered urban services.

Davronbek Abdugaffarov

This article addresses the complex issues of choosing legal principles in international commercial contracts in the context of globalization and the rapid development of digital commerce. It analyzes the fundamental principle of party autonomy, in particular its explicit (expressly stated in the contract) and implied (determined based on the circumstances) forms. The paper considers the adaptation of traditional legal approaches to modern challenges such as smart contracts, decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) and jurisdictional uncertainty. The immutability of smart contracts, while providing commercial certainty, simultaneously gives rise to legal paradoxes and regulatory gaps, as demonstrated in the case of Van Loon v. US Treasury. The need to obtain legal entity status for DAOs creates a market of “legal shells” offered by various jurisdictions (e.g., Wyoming, Switzerland). The emergence of innovative mechanisms such as multi-signature arbitration in dispute resolution leads to the privatization of enforcement proceedings. The aim of the study is to examine the adaptation of traditional legal approaches to modern challenges such as smart contracts, decentralized autonomous organizations, and jurisdictional uncertainty. The paper uses legal analysis and case study methods. The results show that the immutability of smart contracts creates legal paradoxes, while mandatory public law rules limit the voluntary autonomy of the parties.

Stefanos Leonardos, Daniël Reijsbergen, Barnabé Monnot, Georgios Piliouras

Transaction fee mechanisms are pivotal elements of blockchain economies, as they resolve the inherent scarcity in the number of transactions that can be added to each block. First-price auction mechanisms implemented by early blockchain protocols, however, contributed to pronounced intra-block disparities, unpredictable waiting times, high congestion, and other inefficiencies. To mitigate these effects, alternative fee market mechanism has been proposed, e.g., Ethereum’s EIP-1559. In this article, we investigate the ramifications of EIP-1559 on system performance and user experience. Although we prove that EIP-1559 exhibits chaotic behavior even under optimal conditions, we demonstrate that the influence of this chaotic behavior on the primary design objective of the fee mechanism—blocks whose long-term average size equals the target—is limited. Our theoretical bound shows that block sizes in the EIP-1559 mechanism are lower bounded by target utilization—half-full blocks—and the upper bound is capped at 6% beyond the target. These findings are confirmed by an empirical evaluation that shows that the average discrepancy has been 2.9% under Proof-of-Work and decreases to around 1% or less following Ethereum’s transition to Proof-of-Stake. However, the chaotic oscillations in block sizes and the slow adjustments during periods of demand bursts (e.g., NFT drops) result in undesirable inter-block variations in mining rewards and compromise the overall user experience. To address these issues, we propose an alternative base fee adjustment rule, characterized by a learning rate that adapts according to an additive increase, multiplicative decrease (AIMD) update scheme. Our data-driven simulations show that the latter robustly outperforms the EIP-1559 protocol across various demand scenarios.

Enrique Mafla

Centralized control of vote counting and result declaration is vulnerable to attacks that compromise election integrity, fairness, and transparency. We present a Web3-based system to decentralize the processing of tally sheets generated at polling stations. Our analysis focuses on the electoral systems of Venezuela and Ecuador, both of which rely on a centralized tally sheet processing procedure. We evaluate the vulnerabilities of this approach and propose a solution based on permissioned blockchains and decentralized storage, using Ecuador’s system as a case study. Our solution ensures integrity, fairness, and transparency throughout the digitalization, transmission, processing, and publication of tally sheets and election results. We developed a basic prototype using Hyperledger Fabric and IPFS.

Mounira Tarhouni, Faten Ben Aicha

This paper presents a novel approach to enhancing the security of Internet of Things (IoT) data by integrating Long Range (LoRa) communication with Ethereum-based blockchain smart contracts. Our system collects environmental data from IoT nodes using LoRaWAN and leverages smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain to ensure data immutability, traceability, and trustless validation. We demonstrate the feasibility of our architecture through a full-stack implementation using Dragino hardware, The Things Network (TTN), MetaMask, Web3, and Solidity. Experimental results show that our system is effective for secure, decentralized, and transparent IoT data management.

Harsha Kumar A, Preetham Venkatram C, N. Saran, David Daniel · 5 authors

Traditional Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems suffer from critical vulnerabilities in security, interoperability, and patient data control. This paper introduces PolyMed, a novel decentralized platform designed to address these challenges. PolyMed combines blockchain, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and edge computing into a synergistic architecture. It uses the Polygon blockchain for immutable record-keeping and a Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO) for transparent governance. Patient identity is secured through privacy-preserving zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) and anchored to non-transferable Soulbound Tokens (SBTs), granting users true sovereignty over their data. The platform also includes a Decentralized Finance (DeFi) module to improve healthcare accessibility. Empirical evaluations on the Polygon Mainnet confirm the system's viability, showing sub-4-second transaction latencies and over 90% cost savings compared to legacy systems. The integrated AI model, leveraging a LightGBM classifier on a rich set of engineered features, achieves an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.8543 and an accuracy of 80.33% in emergency detection, demonstrating high reliability on a clinically relevant and imbalanced dataset. By aligning with global standards like General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), PolyMed offers an integrated platform for patient-centric digital health management.

Roslan Abdul Wahab, Ummul Hanan Mohamad, Mohammad Nazir Ahmad

No abstract is available for this record.

Maxim Jourenko, Mario Larangeira, Kanta Kurazumi, Keisuke Tanaka

Abstract Blockchain-based systems, in particular cryptocurrencies, face a serious limitation: scalability. This holds, especially, in terms of the number of transactions per second. Several alternatives are currently being pursued by both the research and practitioner communities. One venue for exploration is on protocols that do not constantly add transactions on the blockchain and therefore do not consume the blockchain’s resources. This is done using off-chain transactions, i.e. , protocols that minimize the interaction with the blockchain, also commonly known as Layer-2 approaches. This work relates several existing off-chain channel methods, also known as payment and state channels, channel network construction methods, and other components such as channel and network management protocols, e.g. , routing nodes. All these components are crucial to keep the usability of the channel and are often overlooked. In this work, we propose a taxonomy for all the components of Layer-2. We provide extensive coverage of the state-of-the-art protocols available outline their respective approaches, and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

Kaveri Banerjee, Sajal Saha

Blockchain systems rely on decentralized ledgers and strong security guarantees. A key requirement is non-repudiation, which prevents denial of transaction authorship and supports integrity of recorded data. This work surveys digital signature schemes used in blockchain platforms and analyzes how they deliver non-repudiation and contribute to overall system security. We examine representative scheme families and their cryptographic foundations, security assumptions, and properties relevant to deployment, including unforgeability, resistance to malleability, support for aggregation and multisignature or threshold settings, key and signature sizes, and verification cost. Using these criteria, we compare the suitability of different designs for consensus protocols, smart contract constraints, and resource limits. We highlight practical tradeoffs that affect throughput, storage, scalability, and attack surfaces, and summarize benefits and limitations of each scheme in blockchain contexts. The study underscores that carefully chosen digital signatures are central to achieving non-repudiation and preserving information integrity, and it outlines implementation considerations and open directions such as interoperability and post-quantum readiness.

Jotaro Yano

We formalize a cross-domain "ZK coprocessor bridge" that lets Solana programs request private execution on Aztec L2 (via Ethereum) using Wormhole Verifiable Action Approvals (VAAs) as authenticated transport. The system comprises: (i) a Solana program that posts messages to Wormhole Core with explicit finality; (ii) an EVM Portal that verifies VAAs, enforces a replay lock, parses a bound payload secretHash||m from the attested VAA, derives a domain-separated field commitment, and enqueues an L1->L2 message into the Aztec Inbox (our reference implementation v0.1.0 currently uses consumeWithSecret(vaa, secretHash); we provide migration guidance to the payload-bound interface); (iii) a minimal Aztec contract that consumes the message privately; and (iv) an off-chain relayer that ferries VAAs and can record receipts on Solana. We present state machines, message formats, and proof sketches for replay-safety, origin authenticity, finality alignment, parameter binding (no relayer front-running of Aztec parameters), privacy, idempotence, and liveness. Finally, we include a concise Reproducibility note with pinned versions and artifacts to replicate a public testnet run.

Boya Zhang

The evolution of the technical architecture of digital currencies is profoundly reshaping the global monetary system. This article starts from the core dimensions of technical architecture selection, systematically analyzes the technical characteristics and applicable scenarios of blockchain, distributed ledgers, and hybrid architectures, and combines the two-tier operation system design of central bank digital currencies (CBDC) to explore their sustainable development paths in areas such as payment efficiency, privacy protection, and regulatory compliance. Research shows that the modular reconfiguration of the technical architecture, the improvement of cross-chain interoperability, and the application of quantum-secure encryption technology are the keys to promoting the realization of "controllable anonymity" and global deployment of CBDCS. This article puts forward policy suggestions such as driving technological iteration through a regulatory sandbox mechanism and building a multilateral central bank digital currency bridge, providing theoretical support for the maintenance of monetary sovereignty and the upgrading of financial infrastructure in the digital currency era.

A. I. Tsymbaliuk

This article offers a comprehensive analysis of the current state of legal regulation of blockchain technology and smart contracts in Ukraine and examines their underlying legal nature. Written against the backdrop of global innovations and practical applications of distributed-ledger technology, the study addresses the urgent need to harmonise Ukraine’s regulatory framework with that of the European Union. Adopting an interdisciplinary perspective, the author integrates legal, economic, and technological considerations, viewing blockchain not merely as an innovative IT infrastructure but also as a socio- legal phenomenon capable of transforming tax, registration, and corporate processes. The introduction substantiates the relevance of the research: the rapid expansion of the digital economy, the widespread adoption of virtual assets, and the imperative to reduce corruption risks in the public sector all necessitate legislative adaptation and the introduction of new legal concepts. The purpose of the article is to develop a national regulatory model that reconciles technological innovation with the principles of transparency, legal certainty, and protection of market participants’ rights. The core of the study focuses on five potential areas for deploying blockchain in public administration: electronic tax reporting, accounting for electronic invoices, automated tax payments via smart contracts, an open register of taxpayers, and real-time monitoring of goods flows. The author demonstrates that implementing these solutions can reduce operational costs for businesses, significantly decrease errors and fraud, and enhance public trust in state institutions. Special attention is given to the legal status of NFTs and other tokenised assets. Based on an analysis of Ukrainian and international legislation, the article argues that the transfer of economic copyrights via NFTs requires a written (including electronic) agreement bearing a qualified electronic signature, clearly defined licensing terms, and integration with official state registers to verify legal title.

Ayaz Saadallah Abdelqader

This research presents a comprehensive solution and an attempt to prove the validity of the Collatz Conjecture, also known as the "3n + 1 problem," which has remained one of the most prominent open mathematical problems since 1937. The research presents two integrated methods for proving convergence, using advanced mathematical frameworks: 1. Summary of the First Solution Method (ملخص طريقة الحل الأولى) This method relies on integrating dynamical analysis, Hyperbolic Geometry, and p-adic number spaces. The study concluded by proving the following: * For every positive integer n, the repeated application of the Collatz function leads to the number 1. * There are no non-trivial periodic loops. * The number of steps required for convergence is O(\log^2 n). The proof is based on constructing a group of Contractive Transformations on a Hyperbolic Manifold, using a decreasing fractional energy function, and spectral analysis in the Z_2 space. 2. Summary of the Second Solution Method (ملخص طريقة الحل الثانية) This method offers a solution through a multidisciplinary framework that combines number theory, Topological Geometry, and Quantum Mechanics. Three essential pillars were developed to support the proof: * A Hybrid Energy Function. * An 8-Dimensional Topological Manifold. * A Quantum-Mathematical Verification System based on a quantum operator and a Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocol. The researcher indicates that the entire content of the research was generated solely by Artificial Intelligence (AI) models under his supervision, emphasizing that these solutions are theoretical and derive their strength from a cognitive key discovered by the researcher, which enabled the AI to produce new scientific theories and solutions.

Andrii Bondarchuk, Viktoriia Onyshchenko, Andrii Hashko, Andrii Strazhnikov · 5 authors

The use of distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) and blockchains is rapidly expanding across multiple sectors, including finance and governance. Although numerous blockchain frameworks and networks exist to support different use cases, a major challenge remains: enabling seamless communication between these diverse frameworks, protocols, and ledgers. As blockchain adoption accelerates, the need for effective interoperability solutions is becoming increasingly critical to deliver greater value to users. This study explores the design of current blockchain bridges and evaluates common security threats and mitigation strategies within the realm of interoperability. A threat model is introduced to examine the key components, vulnerabilities, risks, and corresponding safeguards involved in blockchain interoperability. Security concerns—such as excessive trust centralization and flaws in smart contracts—are identified and categorized based on the type of bridge component, along with recommended countermeasures. Different interoperability approaches—including relays, Hash Time-Locked Contracts (HTLCs), notary schemes, and smart contract-based solutions—are analyzed in detail. Ultimately, this research aims to help developers better understand the security challenges in blockchain interoperability and highlights the importance of establishing standardized practices in this area.

Yaman Jandali, Ruisi Zhang, Nojan Sheybani, Farinaz Koushanfar

Privacy-preserving technologies have introduced a paradigm shift that allows for realizable secure computing in real-world systems. The significant barrier to the practical adoption of these primitives is the significant computational and communication overhead that is incurred when applied at scale. In this paper, we present an overview of our efforts to bridge the gap between this overhead and practicality for privacy-preserving learning systems using multi-party computation (MPC), zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), and fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). Through meticulous hardware/software/algorithm co-design, we show progress towards enabling LLM-scale applications in privacy-preserving settings. We show the efficacy of our solutions in several contexts, including DNN IP ownership, ethical LLM usage enforcement, and transformer inference.

Devendra L. Bhuyar

The integration of Industrial Automation Systems (IAS) with the Internet of Things (IoT) under Industry 4.0 has significantly enhanced operational efficiency but also exposed critical communication infrastructures to cyber threats. Conventional security frameworks often fail to ensure end-to-end data integrity, authentication, and confidentiality in real-time industrial networks. This paper proposes a blockchain-enabled mathematical cryptography model designed to secure data transmission between industrial nodes. The framework utilizes Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) for lightweight key generation, SHA-3 hashing for immutable transaction records, and smart contract-based consensus for autonomous trust management within a distributed ledger. A simulated industrial environment demonstrates that the proposed model achieves 42% faster encryption-decryption cycles and a 38% reduction in data latency compared to traditional asymmetric cryptosystems. The mathematical foundation ensures provable security under discrete logarithm assumptions, while blockchain consensus guarantees tamper resistance and auditability. This study contributes a scalable, mathematically robust architecture for secure data transmission in automation networks, offering potential integration within Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) environments.

Nojan Sheybani, Tengkai Gong, Anees Ahmed, Nges Brian Njungle · 6 authors

Collision-resistant cryptographic hash functions (CRHs) are crucial for security, particularly for message authentication in Zero-knowledge Proof (ZKP) applications. However, traditional CRHs like SHA-2 or SHA-3, while optimized for CPUs, generate large circuits, rendering them inefficient in the ZK domain. Conversely, ZK-friendly hashes are designed for circuit efficiency but struggle on conventional hardware, often orders of magnitude slower than standard hashes due to their reliance on expensive finite field arithmetic. To bridge this performance gap, we present HashEmAll, a novel collection of FPGA-based realizations for three prominent ZK-friendly hashes: Griffin, Rescue-Prime, and Reinforced Concrete. Each offers distinct optimization pro les, with both area-optimized and latency-optimized variants available, allowing users to tailor hardware selection to specific application constraints regarding resource utilization and performance.Our extensive evaluation shows that latency-optimized HashEmAll designs outperform CPU implementations by at least 10×, with the leading design achieving a 23× speedup. These gains are coupled with lower power consumption and compatibility with accessible FPGAs. Importantly, the highly parallel and pipelined architecture of HashEmAll enables significantly better practical scaling than CPU-based approaches towards building real-world ZKP applications, such as data commitments with Merkle Trees, by mitigating the hashing bottleneck for large trees. This highlights the suitability of HashEmAll for real-world ZKP applications involving large-scale data authentication. We also highlight the ability to translate the HashEmAll methodology to various ZK-friendly hash functions and different field sizes.

Siyue Wang

This paper studies how luxury brands act in the metaverse. It utilizes a literature review and two semi-structured expert interviews. It details three stages of digital adoption: resistance, selective integration, and Web3 experiments. It explains how NFTs, virtual goods, and token-gated access create technical scarcity and visible status. It shows how young consumers use digital items to build identity and community. It also lists key risks: energy use, data privacy, and brand dilution. The findings outline key digital tools that help maintain core luxury values and point to unanswered questions about long-term brand equity and consumer behavior.

I Made Ardita, Ni Made Suci, Fridayana Yudiaatmaja

Penelitian ini dilatarbelakangi oleh dinamika harga Bitcoin yang dipengaruhi oleh tiga peristiwa utama, yaitu halving, persetujuan Exchange-Traded Fund (ETF) Bitcoin, dan adopsi institusional. Ketiga faktor tersebut dianggap membentuk mekanisme penawaran permintaan serta memengaruhi stabilitas pasar aset digital. Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis pengaruh halving, ETF Bitcoin, dan adopsi institusional terhadap tren harga Bitcoin. Jenis penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif kuantitatif, dengan subjek berupa data historis harga Bitcoin, termasuk periode halving, peristiwa ETF, dan momen adopsi institusional. Data dikumpulkan melalui dokumentasi, studi pustaka, dan pemanfaatan data sekunder dari platform keuangan dan laporan institusi. Instrumen penelitian berupa data log return harian yang kemudian diuji melalui serangkaian uji asumsi klasik (normalitas, homoskedastisitas, heteroskedastisitas). Analisis data menggunakan Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) dan uji pengaruh parsial simultan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa halving berpengaruh signifikan terhadap perubahan harga Bitcoin, mencerminkan efek kelangkaan pasokan. Sebaliknya, adopsi institusional dan ETF Bitcoin tidak menunjukkan pengaruh signifikan secara statistik, namun tetap memberikan kontribusi struktural dalam meningkatkan stabilitas dan legitimasi pasar. Secara simultan, ketiga faktor tersebut membentuk pola yang saling melengkapi dalam memengaruhi dinamika harga Bitcoin. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa analisis siklus halving, tren adopsi institusional, dan perkembangan ETF penting digunakan sebagai dasar pengambilan keputusan investasi serta penyusunan kebijakan yang mendukung ekosistem aset digital yang berkelanjutan.

Saad Alshammari, Ilyes Abid, Rim Ayadi, Tarek Bouazizi · 5 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Mengyuan Cheng, Heap‐Yih Chong, Yongshun Xu, Haitao Wu

No abstract is available for this record.

Asad Mujeeb, Jamiu O. Oladigbolu, Mutiu Shola Bakare, Abduljelil Atima Ibrahim

As the global push for carbon neutrality accelerates, energy efficiency has become essential for sustainable development, especially for nations like Nigeria that face rising energy demands and significant environmental challenges. This study explores how integrating energy efficiency with carbon neutrality can support Nigeria's strategic energy goals while offering global lessons for other countries facing similar challenges, focusing on key sectors, including industry, transport, and power generation. The study systematically examines the impacts of renewable energy (RE) technologies, like solar, wind, and hydropower—alongside policy reforms, technological innovations, and demand-side management strategies to advance energy efficiency in Nigeria. Key findings include the identification of strategic policy frameworks, technological solutions, and the transformative role of green hydrogen in decarbonizing hard-to-electrify sectors. The study also emphasizes the importance of international climate finance, decentralized RE systems like solar mini-grids for improving energy access, and economic opportunities for job creation in the RE sector. Furthermore, it highlights the need for behavioral changes, community engagement, and consistent policy implementation to address infrastructure gaps and drive energy efficiency goals. The novelty of this research lies in its scenario-based analysis of Nigeria's low-carbon transition, detailing both the opportunities and challenges, such as policy inconsistencies, infrastructure deficits, and financial constraints. The findings stress the importance of international collaboration, technological advancements, and targeted investments to overcome these challenges. By offering actionable insights and strategic recommendations, this study provides a roadmap for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers to drive Nigeria towards a sustainable, carbon-neutral future by 2050.