Emmanuel Jiménez, George Psacharopoulos, Jee-Peng Tan
With the current constrained financial conditions in many developing countries, it is essential to develop and utilize new methods of financing education to ensure efficiency and greater social equity. The current financing arrangements in many cases result in an underinvestment in education, an untapped willingness to pay for education and a misallocation of public spending in this sector. This report examines three broad policy options that could remedy the above problems. It is argued that they would result in an increase of resources flowing to education, improve their use, and ensure more equitable access to schooling. Although the suggested reforms need to be phased in gradually, and their specific content will differ among countries, the package includes three elements. They comprise: (1) recovering the public cost of higher education and reallocating government spending on education toward the level with the highest social returns; (2) developing a credit market for education, together with selective scholarships, especially in higher education; and (3) decentralizing the management of public education and encouraging the expansion of private and community-supported schools.
Gail Henderson, Yuanli Liu, Xiaoming Guan, Zongxiu Liu
Chinese hospitals in the 1980s are in the midst of a technological revolution. Based upon data from several regions in China, this paper describes the political, organizational, economic, and philosophical changes which have accompanied the shift in focus from primary care medicine to high technology tertiary care. The increased authority of physicians, greater contact with the West, and increased funding for medical equipment are key factors in these changes. Although the Chinese state continues to control the administration and financing of most hospitals, the decentralizing reforms of Deng Xiaoping have undermined its ability to effectively plan for, and assess new technology. At present, limited resources prevent most regions from excessive technology acquisition, but the state must rebuild its planning capacity in order to foster rational allocation of scarce medical resources.
This paper examines the relation between computer networking by On-line System and the role of branch offices in Fukuoka CBD. There are two impacts of computer networking on multi-locational firms. These impacts are related with the locational trends of head and branch offices. One is changes in the role or the position of a branch office, and the other is the influence of an On-line System as a communication medium on meetings and telephone contacts. The characteristics and trends of computer networking and business tasks managed through an On-line System are discussed. As well, the influence of the introduction of an On-line System on the frequencies of meetings and telephone contacts are also discussed. The results are as follows : 1) Network-type of an On-line System ; This is classified into six types : three types with a decentralized pattern of computer networking and the other three types with a centralized pattern. Centralized types which have a host-computer set up in a head office, are unevenly distributed in finance and insurance sectors, while decentralized types which have sub-computers set up in branch offices are unevenly distributed in wholesale and other sectors. In finance and insurance, there are two trends ; expansion of a centralized network pattern, and a shift to a decentralized type. On the other hand, decentralized types are increasing in wholesale and other sectors. 2) Characteristics of business tasks ; a) Offices with a decentralized pattern perform a greater number of business tasks through an On-line System than ones with a centralized pattern. b) As well, these offices perform a greater number of market planning and management tasks than ones with a centralized pattern. The shift to a decentralized pattern makes such trends concerning business tasks possible. c) Finance and insurance sectors generally declare that business authority within branch offices have remained unchanged. Though the major trend is to maintain this status quo, there is also a lesser trend which gives added authority to branch offices. In wholesale and other sectors, the trend is clear that the role of branch offices are being strengthened. 3) Introduction of an On-line System causes a decrease in the frequency of telephone calls in communication within the same firm. But there is little influence of its introduction on the frequencies of meetings and telephone calls in communicating with other firms. Therefore, an On-line System as a communication medium does not lessen the value of face-to-face meetings in communications between firms.
1. A. Weil [3] constructed a universal distribution t on the Weil group.The values of I at various test functions give the contributions from the zeros of L-functions which appear in the .explicitformulas.In this note, we shall construct a universal distribution zi on GL(n) and prove the explicit formula for automorphic L-functions using z/ when n-2.For n 2, to derive such a result, we must assume certain property of characters of infinite dimensional representations of GL(n) over a local field.This property, formulated as Conjecture, seems to lie slightly beyond our present knowledge of harmonic analysis.The distributions A have striking formal resemblance to Weil's one.Furthermore they are related to each other so that zl is the "direct image" of z/ for m n.This is a pleasant fact since we think that a discovery of new functorial properties related to zeros of zeta functions would be crucial for the proof of the Riemann hypothesis.
In a decentralized fiscal system, it has been suggested that socio-economic characteristics have a more profound impact upon the fiscal system than do the political variables. However, in a centralized fiscal system, local government finance is constrained not only by limited local autonomy by the central government but also must respond to local demand influences on fiscal behavior. It is of interest to assess the responsiveness of the local government fiscal behavior to local socio-economic characteristics. The variation in the municipal fiscal system are analyzed using data from municipalities in Thailand during 1979-1982 as a case study. The reason for using municipalities as the case study is because of their relatively greater degree of autonomy over their fiscal systems. This study divided the municipalities into three types, namely, Nakorn, Muang, and Tambon, according to the central government classification. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between municipal fiscal systems and differences in local socio-economic conditions. The municipal fiscal study here includes both revenue and expenditures. On the revenue side, the study analyzes the variation of municipal revenue from both tax and non-tax revenues. On the other hand, the municipal expenditure included in this study are services required by the central government, i.e., primary education, public administration, public works, public health services, public safety, sanitation, central and specific funds. The variation of each revenue and expenditure is studied in terms of its relationship to income, relative size of the municipal population, and population density. Because of data limitations neither a behavioral function nor a budget constraint could be specified to obtain a formal demand equation. Therefore, the results of the statistical estimation of the model employed can only be interpreted as a measure of the systematic variations in municipal fiscal systems, not the determinants of the levels of these revenues and expenditures. The results show that while there exist differences in the level of revenue and expenditure in each type of municipality, the socio-economic variables are generally not significant in explaining the variation of revenues and expenditures. The political factors have a considerably larger effect on the variation of municipal fiscal systems. One of these factors is the previous year revenue and expenditure level.
In order to frame the financial problem of the agricultural sector in greece, this sector, in the firt part of the thesis, is replaced, firstly in its general economic context and then in the general framework of the financial system in greece ; a special emphasis is put on the role of the agricultural bank of greece. The second part of the work is devoted to the analysis of the main sources abroad, and the main procedures of short and long term credits used mainly by the bank. Because of its structural weaknesses, greek agriculture is unable to use efficiently the available financial ressources which remain insufficient. The case is discussed of an evolution of the status of the bank, a statual institution, towards a national cooperative scheme, gathering more ressources from its deposits and aiming at a more decentralized and professional way of financing while maintaining a lower cost of financing for the agricultural sector, as it is observed in some other countries of the eec.
Pluralism and elitism are the two prevailing theories of policy making in the United States. The purposes of this article are to suggest an alternative framework linkage political economy and to evaluate that framework against both pluralist and elitist policy explanations. The evaluation will take place within the medium of a case study on housing policy. The linkage political economy framework addresses some of the weaknesses evident in both pluralist and elitist studies of public policy. For example, in the housing policy field, elite theorists assert that policy making is dominated by a cohesive, politically powerful corporate bloc made up of the construction, finance, and realty industries.I But the elite theorists are then hard pressed to explain policy failures of this dominant coalition such as the passage of the 1937 public housing program or the original low-income thrust of the 1949 urban redevelopment program. On the other hand, pluralist analysts find a much more open and balanced policy process with a wide spectrum of interests able to be heard through multiple channels available in a decentralized political process.2 Yet, this pluralist analysis cannot adequately explain the consistent bias in U.S. housing policies and out-
This paper is concerned wth the classic "guns versus butter" dlemma.There are two countries engaged in an arms race.The first country is a decentralized market economy and the second country is a command economy.This asymmetry might capture the difference between West and East.The government of each country maximizea the life-time utility of the representative consumer, which depends upon conaumption, leisure and defence.Defence is a characteriatic, which depends positively upon the own weapon stock and negatively upon the foreign weapon stock.The government of the first country usea distortionary taxes on labour ncome to finance the provision of public goods, whereas the government of the second country simply commands its constituents.This paper contrasts coordinated and decentralized decision making.It is argued that coordinated policiea lead to lower levels of government spending and arms accumulation.As far as decentralized decision making is concerned, it is crucial to distinguish between openloop, general closed-loop and subgame-perfect Nash equilibria.The openloop Nash equilibrium relies upon pre-commitment to an announced path of ~This paper was presented to a Meeting of the European Public Choice Society, April 2-5, 1986, Noordwjkerhout, The Netherlands and to a Conference on International Economic Security organized by the Centre for Economic Policy Research, June 19R6, London.The authors are grateful to the participants of those meetings for their comments and to A. Markink for excellent computational assistance.government spending and is the solution concept moet frequently used in the literature.The problem with this concept is that it relies upon very restrictive i nformation sets and over-eatimates the inefficiencea generated by the arms race.The closed-loop Nash equilibrium allows each country to have knowledge of current and past weapon stocks.Within this framework it is possible to model threata, which can induce cooperative behaviour.The principle of subgame-perfection gves uniquenesa and credibility within the class of closed-loop Nash equilibria.This subgameperfect equilibrium coincides with the open-loop equilibrium when utility is separable in home and foreign weapon stocks.In general, this is not the case and subgame-perfect equilibria typically lead to less arms accwnulation than open-loop equilibria.This i llustrates that i n a gametheoretic context an increase in information can make both countries better off and countries should therefore be encouraged to monitor the weapon stocka of their rival.The results are illustrated wth a numerical example based upon CES utility functions and linear technologiea.This gives an opportunity to test a recently developed algorithm for the calculation of aubgameperfect equilibria i n dynamic gamea.
This paper focuses on the impacts of oil revenues on government fiscal policy when we have externality of human capital in economic. Therefore, we devised a fiscal policy capable to make the decentralized economy to achieve the first-best equilibrium in the Uzawa-Lucas model. The results of this paper show that optimal policy requires making use of a subsidy to investment in human and physical capital. Human capital can be financed by oil revenues and tax on labor income and physical capital can be financed by oil revenues. Government size dependent to oil revenues: When share of oil revenue in GDP or ratio of oil revenue in physical capital increase, government size increases and conversely. The results show the return on the physical capital must be free of taxes, but tax on labor income needed to balance the government budget in the steady state or in the transitional phase.
The health care industry is characterized at its core by the requirement that the organization and financing of services recognize the concept of need for health care. This requirement is reflected in industry characteristics of market failure, professional dominance of physicians, and public concern with equal access to care. While market failure is decreasing as a result of the emergence of insurance companies as the "new consumers" of health services, physician dominance and concerns for access continue to be strong. These characteristics mean that successful health care organizations will be local-market focused, decentralized, and tied to community cultures. With regard to training of health services administrators, education should be strengthened in the area of strategy development, with appropriate recognition given to the distinctiveness of the health care industry.
To Party Core Groups of Branch Offices of the People's Bank of China in Provinces, Centrally Administered Municipalities, and Autonomous Regions (except Tibet): Herewith is transmitted (84) Central Organization Department Document No. 13. Based on this document, we hereby notify you of the examination and approval procedure for cadre appointments and removals in the current endeavor to decentralize the bank's establishment.
History as Ghetto. One crucial question posed by contemporary cultural theoreticians from Louis Althusser to Fredric Jameson has to do with the specific relation of cultural artifact to historical truth. How is one to account for the disparity between history and its representation, or between history and its lack of representation by hegemonic groups that have a stake in maintaining an official story? More pertinent for film scholars, how do the events on the film screen explicate-how are they explicated by-events on the larger, cultural stage, when both arenas are as much defined in the gap as in the praxis? Jameson states the problem and its necessity in its most accessible form: It is in detecting the traces of that uninterrupted narrative, in restoring to the surface of the text the repressed and buried reality of this fundamental history, that the doctrine of a political unconscious finds its function and its necessity.' When speaking about the cultural role of the ethnic, historians derive a number of possible, practical consequences of the problematics of political nonrepresentability. For some, the absence of ethnic or subculture representation in history and criticism is lamentable, but correctable (Lary May's Screening Out the Past). For others, the absence of overt subculture representation is proof of either the sterility of the mainstream culture (Michel Foucault), or the impotence and final incommensurability of ethnic cultures (John Cuddihy's Ordeal of Civility), depending on the critic's allegiance or particular neurosis. When addressing American film, it is possible to make a different kind of assertion: the absence of direct, proportional representation of the immigrant as complex character and lead player, and the substitution instead of ethnic stereotypes, is interesting when one takes into account that the medium is to a great extent dominated by immigrants and children of immigrants. The consensus among most historians of American film, from Louis Jacobs to Lary May, is that the number of immigrants-and their children, America's new ethnics-who worked in Hollywood in creative, technical, and economic capacities has been and continues to be extremely disproportionate.2 Of the thirteen founders of the Big Eight studios, for example, eleven were born outside the United States. The last two, Harry Cohn and Jesse Lasky, were the son and grandson, respectively, of immigrants.3 Add to this the fact that by
A Health Sector Financing and Expenditure (HSFE) survey was conducted in Swaziland against a background of growing concern about resource constraints on policy implementation. It sought to provide basic financial information which could be used when discussing policy options for addressing these constraints. Under a wide definition of the health sector, expenditure in 1984/85 was found to be equivalent to 9.8% of GDP and E73 ($US35) per capita. Recurrent expenditure dominated sectoral expenditure, at 86.7% of the total; 57% of recurrent expenditure was for primary health care (PHC) activities, but only 17.9% for the core preventive programmes which the policy emphasizes. Moreover, the Ministry of Health's own expenditure was biased in favour of curative care. Out-of-pocket payments largely supported general PHC activities and the core programmes were predominantly funded by foreign aid. Policy calls for increased PHC funding, therefore, are justified on the grounds of existing inappropriate allocations. If this is to be achieved there must be improved efficiency of resource use within services and improved coordination with other sources of finance in the sector. It is especially important to address efficiency issues within the Ministry. Particular attention should be paid to strengthening the role and effectiveness of decentralized management structures in resource allocation. The Ministry should also address concerns about the quality of care provided by its services, especially the poor availability of drugs. Increased PHC funding may, further, be made possible through the recruitment of additional finance. More discussion of alternative financing arrangements is necessary, but their efficacy may be dependent on improving the quality of care provided within public facilities.
P. What is Number Theory? 1. The Integers. Numbers and Sequences. Sums and Products. Mathematical Induction. The Fibonacci Numbers. 2. Integer Representations and Operations. Representations of Integers. Computer Operations with Integers. Complexity of Integer Operations. 3. Primes and Greatest Common Divisors. Prime Numbers. The Distribution of Primes. Greatest Common Divisors. The Euclidean Algorithm. The Fundemental Theorem of Arithmetic. Factorization Methods and Fermat Numbers. Linear Diophantine Equations. 4. Congruences. Introduction to Congruences. Linear Congrences. The Chinese Remainder Theorem. Solving Polynomial Congruences. Systems of Linear Congruences. Factoring Using the Pollard Rho Method. 5. Applications of Congruences. Divisibility Tests. The perpetual Calendar. Round Robin Tournaments. Hashing Functions. Check Digits. 6. Some Special Congruences. Wilson's Theorem and Fermat's Little Theorem. Pseudoprimes. Euler's Theorem. 7. Multiplicative Functions. The Euler Phi-Function. The Sum and Number of Divisors. Perfect Numbers and Mersenne Primes. Mobius Inversion. 8. Cryptology. Character Ciphers. Block and Stream Ciphers. Exponentiation Ciphers. Knapsack Ciphers. Cryptographic Protocols and Applications. 9. Primitive Roots. The Order of an Integer and Primitive Roots. Primitive Roots for Primes. The Existence of Primitive Roots. Index Arithmetic. Primality Tests Using Orders of Integers and Primitive Roots. Universal Exponents. 10. Applications of Primitive Roots and the Order of an Integer. Pseudorandom Numbers. The EIGamal Cryptosystem. An Application to the Splicing of Telephone Cables. 11. Quadratic Residues. Quadratic Residues and nonresidues. The Law of Quadratic Reciprocity. The Jacobi Symbol. Euler Pseudoprimes. Zero-Knowledge Proofs. 12. Decimal Fractions and Continued. Decimal Fractions. Finite Continued Fractions. Infinite Continued Fractions. Periodic Continued Fractions. Factoring Using Continued Fractions. 13. Some Nonlinear Diophantine Equations. Pythagorean Triples. Fermat's Last Theorem. Sums of Squares. Pell's Equation. 14. The Gaussian Integers. Gaussian Primes. Unique Factorization of Gaussian Integers. Gaussian Integers and Sums of Squares.
A Perfect Zero-Knowledge interactive proof system convinces a verifier that a string is in a language without revealing any additional knowledge in an information-theoretic sense. We show that for any language that has a perfect zero-knowledge proof system, its complement has a short interactive protocol. This result implies that there are not any perfect zero-knowledge protocols for NP-complete languages unless the polynomial time hierarchy collapses. This paper demonstrates that knowledge complexity can be used to show that a language is easy to prove.
In its 1987 decision in Martin v. Ohio,' the United States Supreme Court again engaged in lawmaking for burdens of proof. Although the Court ratified the state's rule in this case,2 the Court has, in the past, prescribed different rules as requirements of due process.3 The Court has justified its lawmaking by asserting that the burden of proof should apportion the risks of error in a way that favors the more important interests at stake in the trial.4 If an erroneous finding of fact F would harm one set of interests more than an erroneous finding of not-F would harm the other, the burden of proof should lie with the party who alleges F, and the standard of proof for F should be high enough to reduce the risk of an erroneous finding proportionately. This idea is founded in Bayesian decision theory,5 in which it is formalized as a rule for choice in conditions of uncertainty. It is a cornerstone of the Court's
Establishing a system of family practice clinics with physicians from its medical staff enabled Mercy Hospital Medical Center, Des Moines, IA, not only to meet consumers' changing needs and wants but also to develop a long-term strategy for survival. The joint venture, which has grown to 9 clinics and 30 physicians since its inception in 1983, does not restrict the hospital from entering into similar relationships with other physician groups. Neither does it restrict physicians from entering new arrangements or using other hospitals. Each clinic operates quasi-autonomously in serving its own patients, and issues such as hiring, firing, hours of operation, and local public relations are handled in a decentralized manner. Other matters--insurance coverage, marketing programs, accounting and data processing systems--are standardized throughout the organization. Challenges involved in undertaking such a project include overcoming resistance from employees, building public awareness of the project, and creating an open, trusting relationship between physicians and administrators. It is particularly important to foster the support of physicians "outside" the partnership and to include those who remain in private practice in marketing efforts.