The Indonesian authorities are exploring options for the establishment of subnational government endowment funds and the Ministry of Finance (MoF) has drafted regulations in that context. However, the motivations and objective for establishing an endowment fund at the subnational level diverge across various stakeholders. Clarity of the objectives and purpose of the endowment fund will be critical for informing features of its architecture, and the endowment fund should be aligned with the national fiscal policy objectives. Establishing such funds at a time of fiscal deficit entails a “borrowing-to-save” approach which is not optimal from a fiscal policy perspective. Currently, there is a misalignment between the design of inflow and outflow rules, the endowment fund’s objectives, and the fiscal/economic context. In addition, the current draft MoF regulations restrict the investment policy to conform with the law on decentralization enacted in 2022. This report emphasizes that regardless of the structure of the endowment fund, it needs to be fully integrated within the budget. The report also provides recommendations on assessing the full cost of the subnational government endowment fund, its design and implementation, and provides suggestions to improve the draft MoF regulations.
Compared to the national level, the local government level in Hungary is more responsive to reform efforts. The Hungarian experience indicates that decentralization is a key programme of the transition process for the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. These experiences also show that the decentralization process will be efficient and effective only if three key requirements are met. These are: (1) a stable and democratic constitutional, legal background; (2) an efficient municipal finance system; and (3) a well-functioning local administration.
Local Government Finance and Decentralization
Hungarian Social, Economic and Educational Studies
There are some competition in our current system, such as the tax competition between central governmentand local governments; tax competition among the local governments and the tax competition in the government. There-fore, some suggestions are put forward to here, perfecting the reform of sub -- tax system, regulating the behavior of thelocal government, controling the struggle about the tax resources in the inner government.
While the issue of school finance has been studied extensively, relatively little effort has been devoted to understanding how school finance policies impact the nature of communities. This is peculiar in light of substantial evidence that public school quality – at least in the U.S. – has much to do with residential choices by households, and in light of increasing empirical evidence that residential segregation perpetuates income inequality. In this paper, I emphasize in particular the importance of considering not only the level of government that is funding public schools but also the role played by the private sector as well as its interaction with the existing public school system. Somewhat surprisingly, simulation results based on U.S. data suggest that, in terms of producing spatial income segregation, the role of centralization versus decentralization of public school financing is quite secondary to the role played by the private sector. A purely public school system – regardless of the degree of centralization of school finance – results in substantially more spatial segregation than a purely private system. However, it is the combination of a (centralized or decentralized) public system with a private school market that yields the least residential segregation as housing price distortions from the capitalization of the public system generate incentives for middle and high income private school attendees to live with lower income public school attendees. Motivated by this insight, additional simulations involving explicit government support for private schools in the form of vouchers are reported, and the sensitivity of results to alternative school production models is tested. 1
INTRODUCTION The Constitution requires that prosecutors prove a reasonable every element that constitutes the crime charged against a criminal defendant.1For many years, legislatures have sidestepped this constitutional requirement by denying that certain aspects of a crime are elements. Legislatures have instead labeled these aspects defenses2 or presumptions3 and thus transferred to the defendant the burden of proving their presence or absence. More recently, state legislatures and Congress have used the term factors4 to shift fact-finding responsibility regarding certain aspects of a crime from the jury to the judge, effectively lowering the required standard of proof from beyond reasonable doubt to preponderance of evidence.5 The Supreme Court has struck down some of these constructions as violating the criminal defendant's constitutional rights,6 and has upheld others.7 Until recently, however, the Court had not offered a clear rule or principle by which legislatures and lower courts could evaluate these criminal statutes.8 In Apprendi v. New Jersey,9 the Court announced such a rule: is unconstitutional for a legislature to remove from the jury the assessment of facts that increase the prescribed range of penalties to which a criminal defendant is exposed. It is equally clear that such facts must be established by proof a reasonable doubt.10 Apprendi is the most definitive statement in a quarter-century of Supreme Court decisions11 assessing the limits on a legislature's authority to define criminal offenses in ways that circumvent the constitutional protections guaranteed to criminal defendants. This Comment defines the issues at stake in this series of decisions and discusses how the Court's analysis has shifted, especially over the course of the four most recent decisions.12 This Comment contends that the majority's analysis in Apprendi should prompt reconsideration of the constitutionality of statutes that impose mandatory minimum sentences based on factors not submitted to the jury or proven a reasonable doubt.13 Part I presents several key decisions in the last quarter-century in which the Court has considered challenges to legislatures' definitions of criminal elements. Subpart A discusses the Maine statute at issue in Mullaney v. Wilbur, the analysis used by the Court to evaluate the constitutionality of the statute's rebuttable presumption of malice aforethought, and the guiding principle that emerged from the decision. Subpart B describes the statute at issue in Patterson v. New York and the distinctions the Court drew between the affirmative defense requirement in Patterson and the rebuttable presumption in Mullaney. It concludes that, although the effect of the two statutes was similar, the principle derived from Mullaney logically led the Court to reach a different result on the constitutionality of the statute in Patterson. Subparts C and D present, respectively, the mandatory minimum sentencing statutes at issue in McMillan v. Pennsylvania and Almendarez-- Torres v. United States, and discuss how the focus of the Court's analysis shifted from the legislature's authority to define proscribed activity to its role in determining how the proscribed activity should be evaluated. Subpart E describes the Court's reinterpretation in Jones v. United States of the rule articulated in Almendarez-Torres, and presents the language in Jones that foreshadowed the coming shift in the Court's analysis of sentencing factors. Finally, Subpart F discusses the enhancement statute at issue in Apprendi, and shows how the Court analyzed the statute's purpose and effect to conclude that it infringed on the defendant's constitutional right to trial by jury and proof reasonable of the elements of the offense. Part II compares the analysis and guiding principle of Apprendi to those of the other cases discussed in Part I, and concludes that the analysis in Apprendi should be followed in the future. …
In response to the nation’s economic and agricultural system reform, Chinese agricultural schools have begun the transformation from academic institutions to vocational and technical education. Significant efforts have been made to reform the curricula, as it is the key element needed for the formation of the new educational system. Prior to the nation’s reform starting in 1978, the curriculum in agricultural schools was theoretical information based and the instruction was teacher-centered. Students usually had little involvement in teaching and learning. In addition, the value of practical “hands-on” experiences in agricultural education had been neglected. During the past decade new ideas and approaches in curriculum development and instruction have been gradually incorporated into the agricultural vocational education through new policy initiatives and a pilot project launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations during 1994-1998. The decentralization is one major feature of these changes. Introduction/Background China is undergoing a large transformation as its economic system is shifting from a centrally planned to a market-driven system (State Council, 1999). Agriculture the traditional foundation of Chinese society faces an especially great challenge in restructuring its system to meet the needs of the market economy. In particular, agricultural education is playing an important role in preparing people for a new phase of rural development. During the past decade, agricultural schools have started to take actions to reform their existing educational systems and to strengthen their vocational programs (Ministry of Agriculture, 1997). There are 360 agricultural schools distributed among the provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities throughout China. Agricultural schools are typically resident schools that require students to pass standardized admission exams. Schools usually enroll graduates from junior secondary schools and each program lasts for three or four years. The average enrollment for each school ranges from 1000-3000 students. One-third of agricultural schools are governed at the provincial level, while two-thirds are administered by prefectures. None of the schools falls directly under the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). However, the Ministry undertakes the function of guidance and macro-management for all agricultural schools. In the past, agricultural schools were academic institutions classified as secondary specialized schools. The mission of these schools was officially described as to train intermediate-level specialists who were political and technical experts. Students were required to master basic theory, to have specialized knowledge, and to develop practical technical skills. Graduates from these schools were graded as “middle-level specialists” (Henze, 1984). Students were usually trained theoretically and narrowly. Most subjects studied in the schools were academic and usually had little relevance to the students’ workplace and reality. Upon leaving school, graduates were often assigned jobs according to a centrally organized plan. Just like graduates from higher education institutions or at least in theory every graduate would be assigned to a job position that could be characterized as “white collar.” In recent years, significant changes have taken place to reflect the continued reform and the development of the “socialist market economy.” Today, jobs for graduates are no longer guaranteed and the government can only hire approximately 50% of agricultural graduates (Chen, 2000). As a result, it is becoming increasingly difficult for an agricultural graduate to find a job in the public sector. Accordingly, graduates need to find their employment in the private sector or they need to be self-employed. Students’ education has become more purposive and selective, since it now must relate to their training and to employment opportunities in the labor market. Moreover, the feedback to schools has indicated
An interactive zero-knowledge proof based protocol of identification and digital signature is proposed in this paper. The security of protocol is based on large number factorization and security of RSA problems. This protocol can be applied to smart cards. This scheme requires minimal amount of computation and communications information. Compared with Nyang's scheme, the scheme is more likely to win higher security. The k , which is the cycle number in order to achieve zero-knowledge, is smaller than Nyang's. On one cycle, the highest security degree, which the protocol can achieve, is independent of the user's identity. The protocol is versatile enough to be applied to digital signature, multiple digital signature, and (N, T) threshold digital signature.
Identity verification is an important information security. The following article introduces the basic idea of Zero Knowledge Proof and analyzes Identity Verification System on Zero Knowledge Proof as well. The purpose is to probe into the building of Identity Verification System based on Zero Knowledge Proof.
This paper presents a perfect zero knowledge proof system for a decision problem which is computationally equivalent to the Discrete Root Problem,and its zero knowledge property does not rely on any assumptions.Thus we provide additional evidence to the belief that perfect zero knowledge proof systems exist in a non trivial manner (i.e.,for language not in BPP).
Preface. Part I: Localization, Mapping and Navigation. On the Positional Uncertainty of Multi-Robot Cooperative Localization I.M. Rekleitis, et al. A Multi-Agent System for Multi-Robot Mapping and Exploration K. Konolige, et al. Distributed Heterogeneous Sensing for Outdoor Multi-Robot Localization, Mapping, and Path Planning L.E. Parker. et al. Mission-Relevant Collaborative Observation and Localization A.W. Stroupe, T. Balch. Deployment and Localization for Mobile Robot Teams A. Howard, M.J. Mataric. Multiple Autonomous Robots for UXO Clearance, the Basic UXO Gathering System (BUGS) Project T.N. Nguyen, et al. Part II: Distributed Survelliance. Programming and Controlling the Operations of a Team of Miniature Robots P.E. Rybski, et al. Autonomous Flying Vehicle Research at the University of Southern California S. Saripalli, et al. Part III: Manipulation. Distributed Manipulation of Multiple Objects Using Ropes B. Donald, et al. A Distributed Multi-Robot System for Cooperative Manipulation A. Das, et al. Part IV: Coordination and Formations. A Layered Architecture for Coordination of Mobile Robots R. Simmons, et al. Stability Analysis of Decentralized Cooperative Controls J.T. Feddema, D.A. Schoenwald. Snow White and the 700 Dwarves B.H. Wilcox. Part V: Sensor and Hardware Issues. GOATS: Multi-platform Sonar Concept for Coastal Mine Countermeasures H. Schmidt, J.R. Edwards. Design of the UMN Multi-Robot System A. Drenner, et al. Simulating Self-Organization With the Digital Hormone Model Wei-Min Shen, Cheng-Ming Chuong. Part VI: Design and Learning. Architecting a Simulation and Development Environment for Multi-Robot Teams S. Balakirsky, et al. RobotSoccer: A Multi-Robot Challenge M.M. Veloso. Part VII: Human/Robot Interaction. Human-Robot Interactions: Creating Synergistic Cyber Forces J.C. Scholtz. Communicating with Teams of Cooperative Robots D. Perzanowski, et al. Robot as Partner: Vehicle Tele-operation with Collaborative Control T. Fong, et al. Adaptive Multi-Robot, Multi-Operator Work Systems A.C. Morris, et al. User Interaction with Multi-Robot Systems D. Kortenkamp, et al. Human-Robot Interactions in Robot-Assisted Urban Search and Rescue R. Murphy, J. Casper. Usability Issues for Designing Multi-Robot Missions R.C. Arkin. Perception-Based Navigation for Mobile Robots K. Kawamura, et al. Author Index.
Ana Luiza d’Ávila Viana, Luiza Sterman Heimann, Luciana Dias de Lima, Roberta Gondim de Oliveira · 5 authors
This article discusses the trends and limits of the Brazilian health system decentralization process, identifying the three elements that constitute the strategic induction performed by the national system administrator in accordance with the guidelines contained in the Operational Norms of the Unified National Health System: systemic rationality, intergovernmental and service provider financing, and health care model. The effects of the Federal regulations are analyzed based on the results of the evaluation study focused on the implementation of the full management scheme at the Municipal level. The decentralization strategy induced by Basic Operational Norm 96 has succeeded in improving institutional conditions, management autonomy, and supply, as measured by the Federal resources transferred, installed capacity, production, and coverage of outpatient and hospital services, with the Municipalities authorized to conduct fully autonomous management, without altering the existing patterns of inequity in the distribution of funds to poorer Municipalities.
Abstract. A commitment multiplication proof, CMP for short, allows a player who is committed to secrets s, s ′ and s ′ ′ = s · s ′ , to prove, without revealing s, s ′ or s ′ ′ , that indeed s ′ ′ = ss ′. CMP is an important building block for secure general multi-party computation as well as threshold cryptography. In the standard cryptographic model, a CMP is typically done interactively using zero-knowledge protocols. In the random oracle model it can be done non-interactively by removing interaction using the Fiat-Shamir heuristic. An alternative non-interactive solution in the distributed setting, where at most a certain fraction of the verifiers are malicious, was presented in [1] for Pedersen’s discrete log based commitment scheme. This CMP essentially consists ofa few invocations ofPedersen’s verifiable secret sharing scheme (VSS) and is secure in the standard model. In the first part ofthis paper, we improve that CMP by arguing that a building block used in its construction in fact already constitutes a CMP. This not only leads to a simplified exposition, but also saves on the required number ofinvocations ofPedersen’s VSS. Next we show how to construct non-interactive proofs of partial knowledge [8] in this distributed setting. This allows for instance to prove non-interactively the knowledge of ℓ out of m given secrets, without revealing which ones. We also show how to construct efficient non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs for circuit satisfiability in the distributed setting. In the second part, we investigate generalizations to other homomorphic commitment schemes, and show that on the negative side, Pedersen’s VSS cannot be generalized to arbitrary (black-box) homomorphic commitment schemes, while on the positive side, commitment schemes based on q-one-way-group-homomorphism [7], which cover wide range ofcurrently used schemes, suffice. 1
The notion of efficient computation is usually identified in cryptography and complexity with probabilistic polynomial time. However, until recently, in order to obtain constant-round zero-knowledge proofs and proofs of knowledge (for NP), one had to allow simulators and knowledge-extractors to run in time which is only polynomial on the average (i.e., expected polynomial time). Whether or not allowing expected polynomial-time is necessary for obtaining constant-round zero-knowledge proofs and proofs of knowledge, has been posed as an important open question. This question is interesting not only for its theoretical ramifications, but also because expected polynomial time simulation is not closed under composition. Therefore, in some cases security is not maintained when a protocol that utilizes expected polynomial time simulation (or extraction) is used as a part of a larger protocol.A partial answer to the question of the necessity (or non-necessity) of expected polynomial-time was provided recently by Barak, who gave the first constant-round zero-knowledge argument with a strict (in contrast to expected) polynomial-time simulator. His was also the first protocol that is not black-box zero-knowledge. That is, the simulator in his protocol utilizes the description of the code of the verifier in an essential way.In this paper, we completely resolve the question of expected polynomial-time in zero-knowledge arguments and arguments of knowledge. First, we show that there exist constant-round zero-knowledge arguments of knowledge with strict polynomial-time extractors. As in the simulator of Barak's zero-knowledge protocol, the extractor for our proof of knowledge is not black-box and uses the code of the prover in an essential way.On the negative side, we show that non-black-box techniques are essential to both strict polynomial-time simulation and extraction. That is, we show that no constant-round zero-knowledge argument (or proof) can have a strict polynomial-time black-box simulator. Similarly, we show that no constant-round zero-knowledge argument (or proof) of knowledge can have a strict polynomial-time black-box knowledge extractor. Thus, for constant-round black-box zero-knowledge arguments (resp., arguments of knowledge), it is imperative that the simulator (resp., extractor) be allowed to run in expected polynomial-time.
We analyze the governance structure and the financing of Kyrgyz education, with special emphasis on the general secondary education system. General secondary schools are under the authority of oblasts and rayons. Our main findings are as follows: 1. The oblast and rayon authorities in Kyrgyzstan are in fact delegated offices of the central administration, with highly non-transparent reporting lines, very little budgetary independence, diffused political responsibility and politicized control over financial flows to lower levels of government. 2. The principle that funds from the central budget for specific functions should be transferred directly (without any intermediaries) to the level of government responsible for those functions is not observed in Kyrgyzstan. In particular, the categorical grants for education are determined and negotiated in a very non-transparent way. 3. The Kyrgyz education sector is fragmented, and the divided responsibilities for management and for finances make rationalization and reform very difficult to accomplish. Moreover, the situation is compounded by the fact that education decentralization has a formal character, and is not accompanied by real delegation of authority and responsibility. 4. The general secondary education system in Kyrgyzstan, although managed according to the rules and procedures common to other post Soviet republics, displays a remarkable degree of regional and ethnic differentiation. The financing levels also vary significantly among oblasts. 5. Parental contributions make up at least 30% of the school budgets in Bishkek. Their collection and use vary greatly among schools, but in all cases are beyond the effective control of either parents or the central and local authorities. Moreover, the emerging system of entrance fees for first grade students is unconstitutional and violates human rights and pedagogical principles. In order to deal with these issues, the Kyrgyz Republic needs to correct the present non-transparent and dysfunctional governance structure of Kyrgyz education, because otherwise any efforts to improve the delivery of educational services or their financing may remain ineffective. The Kyrgyz Republic also needs to define education standards that it will be able to enforce and finance in all schools. Finally, it needs to implement a regulatory system governing parental contributions, which would serve the schools and at the same time allow for transparent and well-monitored use of private funds in public schools.
This paper attempts to identify the key financing issues and constraints for accessing maternal health services in Tanzania. Access to the services is of concern because despite high use of antenatal care the 1990s saw an appreciable decline in the number of births that take place in a health facility (currently 44 percent) and in the number of births attended by skilled health workers (36 percent). The current analysis finds that the great majority of women who access antenatal care services do not pay for the services nor do they pay for drugs and transportation related to the services. While many delivery services (and related drugs and transportation) also are free of charge a greater number of women who access the services do pay something. Costs are particularly high for caesarian-section delivery-related supplies. Evidence is mixed on the impact of user fees instituted in 1993 and especially on their impact on the use of maternal health services. Enrollment in the prepayment-oriented Community Health Fund (CHF) begun in 1996 is low and thus far available in only 23 districts; an exemption policy is inconsistently applied so many members are still charged user fees. Evidence is not yet available to evaluate the effect on access of the more recent and still limited financing efforts of national health insurance and decentralization. Given that financing barriers may play a role in preventing access to maternal health services the paper recommends that further research on user fees be undertaken to help guide health policy implementation. The findings could solidify support for the country’s national waiver and exemption policy and help determine which key maternal health-related expenses should be waived. The paper also suggests that expanding the CHF and the national health insurance program could help reduce financial barriers and promote greater equity in access to these services. The Sector Wide Approach also has potential to improve efficiency of external funding by eliminating the duplication of efforts among donors and providing a single policy for the government to implement. (authors)