Watermark technology has been developed to tackle the problem of unauthorized copying and distribution of digital data. Several different schemes have been proposed in the last few years, but most of them are symmetric, i.e., the key used for watermark embedding is just the same used for watermark detection. However, in many applications, an asymmetric scheme is needed, where the secrete information used to detect the watermark is not enough to modify, counterfeit or remove the watermark. In this paper, some watermark verification protocols based on bit commitment and zero knowledge proof are proposed. The ownership prover insert the watermark into the host signal using symmetric watermark technology based on spread spectrum. The watermark detect key is sent to the verifier hiding in bit commitment. By the interactive protocol between the prover and the verifier, the verifier can extract the embedded watermark, but he can not modify, counterfeit or remove it. Protocols are proposed to verify one watermark bit and several watermark bits respectively. Those protocols can be used to verify the watermark information inserted into image, audio and video using spread spectrum watermark technology.
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Regional policy has ā in general ā the intention to supporting the efforts of regions with development problems to overcome their current problems and to stimulate an increase in regional economic growth. If the regional policy measures by a jurisdiction are successful, there will be a tendency towards more economic convergence between the various regions within that jurisdiction, with the result of a higher degree of cohesion between these regions, than in a state without regional policy. There are many studies on evaluating the impact of different instruments of regional policy on cohesion. But there are only few investigations so far into the institutional framework of these instruments. One institutional aspect has become more and more relevant in public discussions during the last few years: In federations (e. g. in the EU), there is in general not only one jurisdiction responsible for regional policy, but two, three or even more levels of government; the responsibilities (or: competences) are fragmentated between these levels. The paper presents a theoretical analysis of the impact of the allocation of competences in the field of regional policy on the outcome (interregional cohesion) and on the costs (economic efficiency) of regional policy. The analysis is based on the Theory of Fiscal Federalism, including the Economic Theory of Intergovernmental Grants. All the possible more central or more decentral arrangements of regional policy are located between two polar cases: At one pole, we have an arrangement where only the central level of government (e. g. the EU level) is responsible for regional policy; neither any subcentral unit of government (e. g. at the member state level in the EU), nor the regions which are to be supported (the less developed regions) have any influence for deciding on the implementation of regional policy instruments, and only the central government has to finance regional policy with its own resources. At the other pole, we find an arrangement where only the subcentral units of government and the less developed regions themselves are deciding on regional policy and are responsible for financing. In connection with financing, different categories of grants in aid may be applied. In addition, the arrangements may differ from each other because of different institutions for controlling the activities of the lower levels. The main hypothesis is, that a more decentralized institutional arrangement is not in general more efficient and effective than a more centralized arrangement; but ā as compared to the status quo in Europe ā a more decentralized arrangement for some public responsibilities would lead to better results in the field of regional policy. Central questions to be answered are: Have subcentral governments (as compared to central units of government) a tendency for neglecting their subregions with development problems' What is the impact of information costs and asymmetrical information on the choice of the level of government for certain (sub-) responsibilities' To which degree is the central influence stimulating ā or: paralyzing ā the initiative of the regions which are to be supported?
Opportunistic sharing of Internet-connected resources is a low cost method for obtaining access to unprecedented-scale collections of resources. An essential service in any resource-sharing environment is resource discovery: given a description of the resources desired, a resource discovery mechanism returns locations of resources that match the description.
Two resource-sharing environments are particularly well defined by applications, user communities, and deployments: Grid and peer-to-peer systems. Grids are sharing environments that rely on persistent, standards-based service infrastructures that allow well-established, mainly professional communities to share computers, storage space, sensors, software applications, and data across organizational boundaries. Peer-to-peer systems are Internet applications that harness resources from millions of autonomous participants. Thus, Grids provide infrastructure to support a variety of applications on resources shared by relatively small communities; at the scale of the peer-to-peer communities, remarkable sharing patterns are exhibited, such as free riding and intermittent resource participation.
The focus of this dissertation is on solution design for resource discovery in Grids of the scale and lack of reliability of today's peer-to-peer networks. This hybrid target environment requires fully decentralized solutions that scale with the number of users and resources and tolerate intermittent resource participation.
To explore the solution space, we propose a taxonomy for resource discovery solutions. This taxonomy proves to be a useful tool for discussing and comparing existing solutions.
Using this taxonomy, we delimit and explore a portion of the solution space. We build a scalable Grid emulator to evaluate mechanism performance in this subspace. Large-scale experiments reveal that the performance of mechanisms in this subspace is strongly dependent on sharing characteristics.
For inspiration, we turned to studying user behavior in various communities. We uncovered a significant usage pattern in file-sharing communities: users naturally form interest-based groups. This pattern can be exploited for system design in a variety of problems: we designed a file-location mechanism, FLASK, that exploits and benefits from this naturally emerging pattern. Trace-driven evaluations show FLASK leads to lower response latency, good scalability, support for intermittent participation; and satisfies requirements typical of scientific usage of data.
The nature of zero-knowledge is re-examined and the evidence for the following belief is shown: the classic simulation based definitions of zero- knowledge (simulation zero-knowledge) may be somewhat too strong to include some āniceā protocols in which the malicious verifier seems to learn nothing but we do not know how to construct a zero-knowledge simulator for it. To overcome this problem a new relaxation of zero-knowledge, reduction zero-knowledge, is introduced. It is shown that reduction zero- knowledge just lies between simulation zero-knowledge and witness indistinguishability. Under the assumption of existence of one-way permutations a 4-round public-coin reduction zero-knowledge proof system for NP is presented and in practice this protocol works in 3 rounds since the first verifier's message can be fixed once and for all.
District health systems, comprising primary health care and first referral hospitals, are key to the delivery of basic health services in developing countries. They should be prioritized in resource allocation and in the building of management and service capacity. The relegation in the World Health Report 2000 of primary health care to a 'second generation' reform--to be superseded by third generation reforms with a market orientation--flows from an analysis that is historically flawed and ideologically biased. Primary health care has struggled against economic crisis and adjustment and a neoliberal ideology often averse to its principles. To ascribe failures of primary health care to a weakness in policy design, when the political economy has starved it of resources, is to blame the victim. Improvement in the working and living conditions of health workers is a precondition for the effective delivery of public health services. A multidimensional programme of health worker rehabilitation should be developed as the foundation for health service recovery. District health systems can and should be financed (at least mainly) from public funds. Although in certain situations user fees have improved the quality and increased the utilization of primary care services, direct charges deter health care use by the poor and can result in further impoverishment. Direct user fees should be replaced progressively by increased public finance and, where possible, by prepayment schemes based on principles of social health insurance with public subsidization. Priority setting should be driven mainly by the objective to achieve equity in health and wellbeing outcomes. Cost effectiveness should enter into the selection of treatments for people (productive efficiency), but not into the selection of people for treatment (allocative efficiency). Decentralization is likely to be advantageous in most health systems, although the exact form(s) should be selected with care and implementation should be phased in after adequate preparation. The public health service should usually play the lead provider role in district health systems, but non-government providers can be contracted if needed. There is little or no evidence to support proactive privatization, marketization or provider competition. Democratization of political and popular involvement in health enhances the benefits of decentralization and community participation. Integrated district health systems are the means by which specific health programmes can best be delivered in the context of overall health care needs. International assistance should address communicable disease control priorities in ways that strengthen local health systems and do not undermine them. The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria should not repeat the mistakes of the mass campaigns of past decades. In particular, it should not set programme targets that are driven by an international agenda and which are achievable only at the cost of an adverse impact on sustainable health systems. Above all the targets must not retard the development of the district health systems so badly needed by the rural poor.
Open access
Healthcare Policy and Management
Health Systems, Economic Evaluations, Quality of Life
The current need and enthusiasm for health reforms open an important arena for deeper analysis of the policy process with a view to understanding the political determinants of reforms and strengthening implementation. The studies described in this thesis analyse positions of different actors in the reform process, their actions in support or opposition of the process, and their impact on the health sector reform process. Globally and especially in developing countries health sector reforms have been implemented over long periods. Although there have been improvements in health, the remaining burden of disease in many countries is still very high. Reasons for the high burden of disease have been classified into lack of resources and poor organizational and managerial capacity. Good stewardship was needed to facilitate improvement in the performance of health systems. Stakeholdersā alignment and support was one of the most important components of good stewardship. However, stakeholder analysis had not been a common undertaking in developing countries despite the reforms that were being implemented in most of them. It was the aim of this study to answer the question: What has been the role and importance of stakeholders in supporting or opposing the health sector reform process? The study was conducted in Tanzania as one of the poorest countries in Africa, using the decentralization of the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) as a case reference. The study units were the Ministry of Health Headquarters, Medical Stores Department, Expanded Programme on Immunization, national archives, regions and districts. At district level the study units were District Council, Council Health Management Team, EPI managers at regional and district levels, ward and village authorities, health facility, facility providers and households. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect data from January 2000 to June 2002. Relevant data collection instruments were prepared and pre-tested. The qualitative data collection methods included document review, \nin-depth interviews, key informants interviews and observations. Quantitative \nmethods involved retrieval of secondary data, health facility survey and \nhousehold surveys. Regular discussions with key informants and data \ncollectors were held to verify the findings. Qualitative data was analysed \nmanually. Quantitative data was captured and analysed using Epi Info version \n6.1 and STATA version 6.0. The study involved answering five main questions. The first question was: Do \nreforms learn from history? Analysis of the waves of health reforms prior to \nthe current reforms from 1926 was done to answer the question. The main \nstakeholders in the reforms were the political party in power, the government \nand donors who supported the reforms each time. Each wave of health sector \nreforms provided information on health provision, financing and resource \ngeneration. Due to the political contexts, information on failures of health \nfinancing did not provide lessons for succeeding reforms of the health sector. \nStakeholdersā political interests opposed lessons that did not match the \npolitical ideology at the time i.e. free public services versus privatization and \npaying for social services. Lessons from previous health reforms were \nselective, and did not consider health-financing needs among others. The \nongoing health reforms needed to use information from all functional aspects \nof the health system to provide lessons for improving the health system. The second question was: Who were the stakeholders in the current health \nreforms and what were their interests and reactions? The main stakeholders \nwere donors, and the government. The two had a very high support for the \nreforms evidenced by their participation in problem identification, justification, \nreform design, planning and implementation. The health sector reforms thus \nhad high political support at central level. In the implementation process, \nissues that triggered stakeholdersā reaction included sectoral versus local \ngovernment decentralization. Another issue was the donor modality in \nfinancing the health sector and need for adopting new financial management \nsystems. Among the donors there was hesitancy to join the common financing \nmodalities that included a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) and Basket \n Funding. As a result, there was delay in the process in order to reach better \nconsensus. \nThe third question was: What was the impact of stakeholders in the process of \nreforming a vertical programme like EPI? Health Sector Reforms in EPI \nincluded integration of generic functions, for example, vaccine procurement to \nmedical stores department. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected \nand analysed from the Ministry of Health, EPI management unit. This again \nrevealed that EPI reforms were well supported by the government and donors \ncentrally. EPI managers at both district and regional levels opposed some of \nthe EPI reforms. They argued that coverage was falling due to the reforms. \nHowever, there was no concrete evidence relating reforms in the EPI \nprogramme and falling coverage. The primary aim of certain actors was to \nmake sure that they continued receiving extra income from EPI functions. One \nof the effects of stakeholdersā reaction was reversal of reforms (recentralization) \nand return to the status quo. The fourth question was: What was the immediate reaction of stakeholders to \ndecentralization at district level and how might it have affected performance of \nEPI functions and the challenges? The immediate reaction of stakeholders \nwas reduced cooperation between the Council Health Management Team \n(CHMT) and the District Council who were politically supreme in the district. \nWithin the Council Health Management Team there was inadequate \ncommunication, which led to poor teamwork. The result of this was reduced \nsupervisory visits to peripheral health facilities. The EPI coverage in the study \ndistrict was 52.8 per cent, which was well below the previous national average \n(80 per cent). A logistic regression model for EPI service quality variables on \nchildren between 12 months and 23 months who had completed vaccination \nwas applied. Certain EPI quality of service variables predicted significant \nchanges in the odds ratio for completing vaccination. It was then suggested \nthat strategies were needed to improve management skills among the CHMT \nand District Council members. Also there was a need of hastening the \nprocess of increasing remuneration and motivation of peripheral health \nworkers. The fifth and final question was: What was the interest of the stakeholders \nand prospects of increasing EPI coverage at district level? Decentralization \nand integration of EPI functions were among the reforms at district level. The \nanalysis revealed that active stakeholders at district level were the Ministry of \nHealth, CHMT, EPI managers at district and regional levels and facility \nproviders. The Ministry of Health opposed integration of EPI at district level by \nissuing the directive that DCCOs and MCHCOs (EPI manager at district level) \nshould resume their tasks. However, the CHMT had no option but to comply. \nThis action reversed some of the health reforms at district level. Analysis of \nthe importance the community attached to EPI, using willingness to pay for \nEPI cold chain kerosene, was done. The support was low (48.7 per cent). EPI \nservice quality variables were significantly negatively associated with odds \nratio for willingness to pay for EPI input. Simulation with Policy Maker \ncomputer software predicted that an increased number of stakeholders \nthrough community participation would significantly improve the current low \nlevel of EPI coverage. It was then proposed to do a similar analysis in other \nvertical programmes and implement on a trial basis the results of the \nsimulation. \nIn conclusion, stakeholders were found to be active and influential in the \nhealth sectors of developing countries like Tanzania but poorly considered in \nimplementation of reforms. Stakeholders are important since some strongly \nsupport while others oppose the reforms. The reaction of stakeholders is \nevident through deployment or non-deployment of information depending on \ninterest and context. This would result in poor management leading to \ninefficiency in resource use, which would then be followed by poor quality of \nservices, poor support by communities and consequently poor utilization of \nhealth services. It is suggested that stakeholder analysis be conducted in \nother vertical programmes in the process of integration. Promotion of \nstakeholder analysis and also Policy Maker as a tool to manage stakeholders \nwill facilitate the management of reforms in the health sector.
Contents: Introduction - A New Strategy in Mumbai: The puzzles of slum redevelopment Placing the research in the context of the literature A preview of the arguments Study methodology The structure of the book. The Evolution of the Slum Redevelopment Strategy: Introduction The Mumbai context The evolution of Mumbai's redevelopment strategy Regulating the development potential of land. Decentralized Conflict: Introduction Literature review Dharavi redevelopment plan: contested intentions PMGP and SPARC: the battle over Markandeya Conflicts between SPARC and the private contractor Uncivil society: distrust between SPARC and the community SPARC's new role as a developer Reexamining NGOs in housing delivery Decentralization and centralization in housing delivery. Demolition and Redevelopment: Introduction Literature review: tenure legalization The physical structure of properties in Dharavi Slum upgrading and slum redevelopment Change in property rights and property attributes High land values and medium-rise living Slum redevelopment and tenure legalization Demand-driven or supply-driven development. Financing Slum Redevelopment: Introduction Literature review: markets and partnerships State finance for redevelopment Private capital from the non-profit and the for-profit sectors Institutional responses to the scarcity of finance Private and public roles. Enabling Slum Redevelopment in Mumbai: The Mumbai experience An analytical framework for upgrading The paradox of enabling Future research Squatters as developers Appendices: Appendix 1 - list of interviewees Appendix 2 - property values in Mumbai Appendix 3 - Scion Shivaji Nagar CHS Appendix 4 - Markandeya CHS: annexure II, SRD application Appendix 5 - Cost estimate of the Rajiv Indira CHS Notes Bibliography Index
Torsten Eymann, Stefan Sackmann, GĆ¼nter MĆ¼ller, Ingo Pippow
The mobile and increasingly ubiquitous use of information technology leads to more dynamic, constantly self-reconfiguring networks. Their services are available anytime and anywhere; as software agents, they can make local, context-aware decisions. F. A. von Hayek developed a theory for economic coordination based on individual decision making. This paper presents the explanation concepts of economic self-organization as at least one option for the design of decentralized coordination of information systems consisting of autonomous software agents with limited information processing capacity and incomplete information. Experiments using a multi-agent system show that a targeted change of this basic rule set directly influences the behavior of the individual elements and indirectly the behavior of the overall system.
Grids enable users to share and access large collections and various types of resources in wide areas, and how to locate resources in such dynamic, heterogeneous and autonomous distributed environments is a key and challenging issue. In this paper, a three-level decentralized and dynamic VEGA Infrastructure for Resource Discovery (VIRD) is proposed. In this architecture, every Border Grid Resource Name Server (BGRNS) or Grid Resource Name Server (GRNS)has its own local policies, governing information organization, management and searching. Changes in resource information are propagated dynamically among GRNS servers according to a link-statelike algorithm. A client can query its designated GRNS either recursively or iteratively. Optimizing techniques, such as shortcut, are adopted to make the dynamic framework more flexible and efficient. A simulator called SimVIRD is developed to verify the proposed architecture and algorithms.Experiment results indicate that this architecture could deliver good scalability and performance for grid resource discovery.
With inspiration from the educational paradox: how can actors, as external influences, enable human beings to act independently of external leadership? This article will discuss an organizational paradox: how can staff be lead in ways that enable them to become autonomous followers? The educational paradox was originally phrased in the beginning of the Enlightenment epoch and it therefore links education with democracy: āBildungā was seen as a way to facilitate people in being emancipated, action competent citizens of democratic societies. The organizational paradox is also phrased as a vision of a democratic education in a democratic setting. The article discusses this leadership vision in the light of contemporary trends in society, politics, governance and culture: globalization, decentralization, contingency, neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism, new public management and the efforts to promote and stress the managerial aspects of school leadership.
Based on the zero-knowledge proof protocol a new forward-secure digital signature scheme is proposed. The scheme is proven to be forward secure based on the hardness of factoring,discrete logarithm and quadric remain problems in the random oracle model.
The advent of the Web, electronic commerce and the creation of electronic distribution channels for content have brought new challenges regarding the protection of intellectual property. Digital watermarking is a new information security technique. Using zero knowledge proofs in the cryptography we propose a watermark detection based on zero knowledge, of solving that the existence of a watermark without revealing what the watermark is , of providing the security when we apply watermarking.
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Part 1 Overview of fiscal decentralization in South Africa, Roy Bahl and Paul Smoke: introduction - the approach, the context of reform in South Africa South African fiscal decentralization South African fiscal decentralization in comparative perspective the framework for analysis - critical choices that reflect system objectives, the rest of the volume. Part 2 Municipal powers and functions - the assignment question, Larry Schroeder: introduction theory related to the assignment question legal and historical context - the transition period, the legal and statutory basis for assignment of powers and functions alternative divisions of powers and functions - objectives and principles, assumptions, alternative arrangements, alter 1 primary powers and functions assigned to B municipalities, alternative 2 redefining metros to include B1 municipalities, alternative 3 asymmetric divisions by service and type of municipality, alternative 4 districts retain service authority, summary evaluation conclusions. Part 3 Overview of the local government revenue system, Roy Bahl et al: introduction norms for a local tax evaluating the local revenue system - utility/user charges, property rates, regional service council (RSC) levy other local government revenue options - utility excise tax, motor vehicle taxes summary. Part 4 Property taxation, Peter Vaz: introduction correspondence with theory reform options - extension of the property tax into areas previously untaxed, uniformity of the tax base versus local choice, frequency of property valuations, property tax relief the local government property rates bill - extension of the property tax into areas previously untaxed, unifomity of the tax base versus local choice, frequency of property valuations, property tax relief case studies of selected municipalities - Greater Tzaneen municipality, Matjhabeng municipality, Mbombela municipality, Moses Kotane municipality, Phokwane municipality, Ulundi municipality, implications of the case studies implementation strategy - communication strategy, phase-in of tax liablity changes, administrative changes conclusions. Part 4 The regional service council levy, Roy Bahl and David Solomon: introduction is the RSC levy a good local tax? administration of the RSC levy - identification, record keeping, assessment, collection, audit and penalty evaluation of the RSC levy - revenue performance, revenue importance, vertical equity, horizontal equity, neutrality, administration costs, fiscal disparities, benefits and burdens, political feasability, legal implications options for reform - option 1 leave it as it is, option 2 convert the RSC levy to a true local government tax, option 3 turn the administration of the RSC levy over to SARS, option 4 abolish the RSC levy and adopt a payroll tax, general issues - should SARS absorb RSC levy administrations?. (Part contents).