Blockchain Papers

Claude Lopez, Susana Nudelsman, Matias Alfredo Gutierrez Girault, Jose Siaba Serrate

No abstract is available for this record.

Liu Cheng-li

The Chinese central and local government relationships have been dynamically evolving since the foundation of P.R.China.The characteristics of central and local government relationships can be sum- marized as centralization-decentralization circular in the past planned economy period.By reforming fiscal sys- tem and government institutions,central-local relationships changed significantly,and China economic and po- litical systems have made prominent progress since reform and opening-up policy.Nevertheless,there are man- y problems in this topic,such as the degree of centralization and decentralization,whether central and local governments should have financial resources proportionate to their duties and responsibilities,and the strength of central and local governments.Thus,we should take measures in economic and political systems to improve the central-local relationships including transforming government function,setting up public finance and opti- mizing administrative structure.

Nan Sun

Empirical analysis on the structure of financial institutions and economic growth in rural areas after China's reform and opening for 26 years shows that it is urgent to reform the financial institutions.The development of decentralization and diversification of rural finance cannot meet the requirements of promoting economic growth in rural areas.Agricultural socialized service system should take centralized system of Chinese rural financial system as the basic mode,including services for each stage before,during and after production.

Omkant Pandey

Recently, non-black-box techniques have enjoyed great success in cryptography. In particular, they have led to the construction of constant round protocols for two basic cryptographic tasks (in the plain model): non-malleable zero-knowledge (nmzk) arguments for np, and non-malleable commitments. Earlier protocols, whose security proofs relied only on black-box techniques, required non-constant (e.g., O(log n)) number of rounds. Given the inefficiency (and complexity) of existing non-black-box techniques, it is natural to ask whether they are necessary for achieving constant-round non-malleable cryptographic protocols. In this paper, we answer this question in the negative. Assuming the validity of a recently introduced assumption, namely the Gap Discrete Logarithm (gap-dl) assumption [MMY06], we construct a constant round simulation-extractable argument system for np, which implies nmzk. The gap-dl assumption also leads to a very simple and natural construction of non-interactive non-malleable commitments. In addition, plugging our simulation-extractable argument in the construction of Katz, Ostrovsky, and Smith [KOS03] yields the first O(1)-round secure multiparty computation with a dishonest majority using only black-box techniques. Although the gap-dl assumption is relatively new and non-standard, in addition to answering some long standing open questions, it brings a new approach to non-malleability which is simpler and very natural. We also demonstrate that gap-dl holds unconditionally against generic adversaries. 1

Alexandra ZEMANOVÁ

The topic of this bachelor final project is "Variability of municipal revenues in Czech republic and causes". The goal of the project was to analyze revenues of communities of the chosen region, to find differences in these revenues, and to specify the cause of their origin. The introductory part consists of the theory of fiscal federalism, decentralization and functions of public finance. The main part talks about municipal authority, her fiscal system, position of tax revenues and factors that cause differences in tax revenues.

MA Li-ping

It has become an important subject of the financial management to explore how to strike a balance between cen- tralization and decentralization in collectivized financial management,and to maximize the scale advantages of collectivized enterprises.The article explains and analyzes many aspects,such as financial management,budget management system,key decisive control system,CFO dispatch system,and finance supervision system.

Zhu Shunjua

The world city network is the world economics map. Along with information and communication technology development, Service industries such as international finance and trade assume decentralized the central tendency in the world city,and networks day by day in the space. The city's tradition rank sequence is substituted gradually by the network structure, therefore the world city forms the complex network system.

Fabian Garavito

No abstract is available for this record.

Kun‐Chin Lin

Reviewed by: Assessing the Extent of China's Marketization, and: The Revival of Private Enterprise in China, and: Entrepreneurship in China Kun-Chin Lin (bio) Xiaoxi Li , editor. Assessing the Extent of China's Marketization. The Chinese Trade and Industry Series. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006. xix, 330 pp. Hardcover $114.95, ISBN 978-0-7546-4878-9. Shuanglin Lin and Shunfeng Song, editors. The Revival of Private Enterprise in China. China Trade and Industry Series. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007. Hardcover $114.95, ISBN 978-0-7546-4892-5. Keming Yang . Entrepreneurship in China. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007. Hardcover $114.95, ISBN 978-0-7546-4668-6. These three volumes signal the sustained commitment of Ashgate Publishing to contemporary Chinese political economy—the first two titles belong to a handful of edited volumes published in the past three years under the Chinese Trade and Industry Series; the latter is a monograph not classified under any Ashgate series.1 Series editors for the said series—Aimin Chen (Sichuan University) and Shunfeng Song (University of Nevada, Reno)—are well-respected economists with decades of experience in research and teaching in the United States and in China. Most volumes appear to be collections of conference papers by scholars from both sides of the Pacific, presented at symposiums supported by international funding agencies, corporate donations, and Chinese academic institutions. Previous volumes in the series have received scant attention in major journals of economics and China studies.2 I suspect this neglect reflects the relative abundance of edited volumes on various aspects of the Chinese economy as well as inconsistencies within the series. Reviewers of earlier volumes have voiced concerns with the following problems: numerous editorial errors; outdated data, in particular pertaining to "post-WTO" discussions; context-insensitive applications of econometrics models; and inconsistent efforts at theory building and comparative analysis across sectors and countries.3 To varying degrees, these problems resurfaced in the two edited volumes under consideration here. All three books address head-on the two most fundamental structural changes in the Chinese economy since the mid 1990s—the historic shift from a socialist economy of chronic shortage to one of overall oversupply, and the diminishing importance of the state and collective forms of ownership in face of various property right reforms and the surging private sector. These trends have fairly overtaken and made unfashionable earlier scholarly attention on the reform of state-owned enterprises and debates over soft-budget constraints. However, a close reading of these volumes strongly suggests that the evolving [End Page 330] complexities in state-nonstate relationships remain the central institutional variables for economic growth and system transformation. The earlier debate over whether ownership form and corporate governance or market competition and the overall external environment (including financing options and regulatory risks) matter more for improving the performance and governance of state-owned enterprise finds new relevance in application to the analysis of private enterprises. In addition, central and local governmental relations over the process of decentralization enter into discussion but do not receive systematic attention and theorization in these volumes. It is almost as if, after lavishing praises for the entrepreneurial local state in the 1990s, scholars have decided that the private firms and entrepreneurs are the central, autonomous agents for China's present dynamism. There is certainly a need to rethink the research agenda in light of structural changes in favor of the private sector, but one should keep in mind necessary continuities and comparisons with the earlier scholarship. Assessing the Extent of China's Marketization, edited by Xiaoxi Li of Beijing Normal University and with twenty-eight of twenty-nine chapter contributors sourced from that university, is best read as issue-specific summaries of regulatory and institutional changes since 2000. Whether these changes actually translate into the development of robust political and institutional foundations for the market economy is largely implied through correlations to aggregate economic outcomes rather than through rigorous analyses. Anthropologists, sociologists, and political scientists would look in vain for relevant qualitative research such as in-depth case studies, contextualized narratives, or historical-institutional analysis of long-term trends. The underlying perspective of this volume assumes a congruence of state-building and market-building projects...

Tak Cheung Lam

The prevalence of digital information management in an open network has driven\nthe need to maintain balance between anonymity, authenticity and accountability (AAA).\nAnonymity allows a principal to hide its identity from strangers before trust relationship\nis established. Authenticity ensures the correct identity is engaged in the transaction even\nthough it is hidden. Accountability uncovers the hidden identity when misbehavior of the\nprincipal is detected. The objective of this research is to develop an AAA management\nframework for secure resource allocations. Most existing resource management schemes\nare designed to manage one or two of the AAA attributes. How to provide high strength\nprotection to all attributes is an extremely challenging undertaking. Our study shows that\nthe electronic cash (E-cash) paradigm provides some important knowledge bases for this\npurpose. Based on Chaum-Pederson’s general transferable E-cash model, we propose a\ntimed-zero-knowledge proof (TZKP) protocol, which greatly reduces storage spaces and\ncommunication overheads for resource transfers, without compromising anonymity and\naccountability. Based on Eng-Okamoto’s general divisible E-cash model, we propose a hypercube-based divisibility framework, which provides a sophisticated and flexible way\nto partition a chunk of resources, with different trade-offs in anonymity protection and\ncomputational costs, when it is integrated with different sub-cube allocation schemes.\nBased on the E-cash based resource management framework, we propose a privacy\npreserving service oriented architecture (SOA), which allows the service providers and\nconsumers to exchange services without leaking their sensitive data. Simulation results\nshow that the secure resource management framework is highly practical for missioncritical\napplications in large scale distributed information systems.

Xu Hu

Corrupt Schools,Corrupt Universities is an investigative report on the school corruption in different areas and countries by International Institute for Educational Planning.It gives the new definition of school corruption,and especially details these behaviors in five fields where school corruption happens easily.These are decentralized financing,teacher management and behavior,contracting of non-wage expenditures,exams,credentials and accreditation and private tutoring.The report provides the experience of different countries in fighting these corruptions.It shows that school corruption is an international problem and its severity cannot be easily judged by different national power.There are many reasons for school corruption and we need to take systemic steps and call on the whole society to fight it.These international experiences are helpful for us to prevent and fight school corruption in our country.

Fabian Monrose, Seny Kamara

When designing and analyzing cryptosystems, it is usually assumed that the computational devices used by the honest parties have access to resources that are outside of the malicious parties' control. In such a model, it is known, under standard cryptographic assumptions, that essentially any operation can be performed securely as long as a majority of the parties are honest. In many practical settings, however, the assumption that computational resources can be protected from an adversary does not hold. This dissertation explores various security problems in settings where honest parties wish to make use of computational resources that are under adversarial control. We focus on resources that are fundamental to cryptography, such as randomness and storage. We first consider the problem of encrypting with a malicious random number generator. We introduce the notions of security against chosen-randomness attacks (CRA) and security against chosen-ciphertext and randomness attacks (CCRA), which formally capture the security of private-key encryption when used with sources of randomness that are under adversarial control. We study the relationships between these notions and the traditional notions of security for encryption. We also show how to design efficient schemes that are CRA-secure, and how to transform any CPA-secure scheme into a CRA-secure one, and any CRA-secure scheme into a CCRA-secure one. We then turn to the task of authenticating data stored in unreliable memory. We propose a general framework for designing efficient proofs of data possession, which are proof systems that enable one to convince a verifier that it stores a particular piece of data. We give a compiler that transforms any sigma-protocol (i.e., a three-round public-coin zero-knowledge proof of knowledge) into a proof of data possession. Finally, we consider the problem of storing private data in untrusted memory. We show how to design private-key encryption schemes that allow one to search over encrypted content. Our constructions are optimal in terms of search time. We also introduce searchable encryption in the multi-user setting, where search privileges can be delegated to a set of authorized users.

Hans‐Georg Petersen

The paper tries to shed some light on the problems of centralization and decentralization within an economic union and the federal member states. Integration and decentralization are not opposite policy strategies but both meaningful if the single public goods and services supplies are analyzed in more detail. Both strategies doubtlessly have advantages, which can be realized if the manifold possibilities are combined in an efficient approach of good governance. Best practice approaches in inter- or supra-national integration, fiscal federalism and taxation do exist and have to be successfully implemented. Obviously such a modern fiscal policy has to be accompanied by an appropriate monetary policy, which in an economic union has to be carried out by an independent central bank as one of the necessary countervailing powers in a democratic setting. A modern fiscal policy strategy efficiently controls budget deficits, which naturally have to be limited to finance reliable public investments. Such strategy has to be safeguarded through modern methods of budgeting and fiscal planning. Modern public management with a clear code of conduct for the government officials ensures corruption free administration.

Yuslely Usman, Ni Ketut Aryastami, Harimat Hendarwan

Since 2001, Indonesia has entering its new era of democratization called decentralization in all sectors, including health. From now and then, the District Health Office has been forced to be able to implement its health policy and function such as 1) stewardship, 2) health resources management, 3) health financing, and 4) health services provision. Basic function of health system is needed to achieve the health purpose that shown the performance of the health offices and its structure. The performance is related to the quality of management. European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) is a tool to quantify and assess the quality of management in an institution, so that it will be understood what is the weakness and the strength of the institution. EFQM was developed in Europe that has been proved that it can formulate an excellent management and performance by then. This study implements the EFQM model towards performance improvement model development in district/municipality health office. The objective of the study is implement EFQM model in improving health system performance in district/municipality. Type of study is a health system research with a cross sectional design in three selected district health office based on Human Development Index criteria, that is high, medium and low. Analysis has been done implementing the EFQM method called RADAR. The study location were Tabanan district (Bali), Bandar Lampung Municipality (Lampung), and Belu District (East Nusa Tenggara). The qualitative analysis was quantified using the RADAR for the nine pillars in the method. The nine criteria were grouping into enables and results criteria, such as 1) enables criteria of leadership, policy and strategy, employment, partnership and resources as well as process; 2) results criteria were: clients satisfaction, staff satisfaction, social results of the community as well as the main key. Each criteria has some sub-criteria. Each sub-criteria then be valued using the RADAR, and quantified ranged from 0-10 as no prove and anecdote only; 15-35 as there are some prove; 40-60 as proved; 65-85 as strongly proved, and 90-100 as completely proved. The final evaluation of each pillars done by counting the average values of the sub-criteria multiplied by each weight of the pillars that already formatted. The formatted weight was 1.0 for the leadership; 0.8 for the policy and strategy, 0. 9 for the employment; 0. 9 for the resources and partnership; 1.4 for process; 2. 0 for clients satisfaction; 0. 9 for staffs satisfaction; 0.6 for community social satisfaction and the 1.5 for the key indicator, with a total weight of 10. Results showed that the final results of the health office performance were Tabanan has the highest of 250, Bandar Lampung Municipality 239, and Belu 217. This scoring seems directly reflects the management achievement level of District Health office that correlate to the HOI Index. The EFQM method can be used as a model to improve staff performance in the district health office by maintaining the weaknesses found in the field as constraints. Key words: EFQM, district health offices, scores, performances

Cao Jun-xin

In view of government participating bank ownership in financial market,seen from the central and the local taxation-decentralization——financial dual structure,an analysis is made on the reasons for the central bank in China making it more complex and difficult to macro-regulate banking financial institutions.Some policy suggestions are made to improve central bank's macro-regulation mechanism in China with a comparison of and reference to the experience and doings of the Fed in monetary regulation.

Judit Kálmán

Observation of the first and second generation of literature on fiscal decentralization together with further branches of political economy, e.g. specifically on the political economy of intergovernmental grants and the widening literature on political business cycles leads to a puzzle: decentralization is a continuing policy trend however in reality there are downsides, institutional, political and other factors that do interfere with decision-making and can increase the chances for inefficient policy outcomes. Infrastructure investment finances at all levels of government are especially prone to election cycles and corruption. Driven from the above context the basic research question guiding my work is: whether local infrastructure policies in Hungary are really designed according to efficiency considerations? What politico-economic factors might affect central and local governments’ allocations on infrastructure investment? To complete this goal, a closer look at municipal capital investment financing in Hungary takes place. Related to the main research question several themes emerge and hypotheses are checked on the effects of the revenue base, local need and socioeconomic indicators on local investment strategies and financing constructions or grant allocations. Does grant financing mean a less careful financial planning? What is the importance of lobbying through different channels? I also search for - and in fact do find evidence of electoral cycle effects and partisan considerations (effect of similarities in political color of central and local governments) in intergovernmental grant distribution and in municipal investment activities. These issues to be researched call for a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods. Some of my hypothesis are tested on limited data from a 2004 survey of city mayors in Hungary. Hypotheses on cycles, determinants of investment outlays of local governments and grant recipiency are tested with linear and Probit panel regressions respectively on a panel dataset comprehensive for all Hungarian local government budgets from 1993-2003, a period bridging three election cycles, linked with some demographic,socioeconomic data and local election data. Findings can add to the discussion on reforming local government finance system overall, on the agenda in Hungary for quite a while, but perhaps also to the new literature on the political economy of failures, delays in socially beneficial reforms. What this dissertation certainly does contribute to is the fairly small pool of international empirical evidences available on political budget cycles, especially at the sub-national level and the emerging literature on the political economy of intergovernmental grants providing the case of one transition country that irrespective of the fact of by now being an EU member sometimes shows certain similarities to the developing ones.

Nurjanna Ladjin

The growth of local autonomy has driven Central Sulawesi Province into less adequate financial condition, which has its main source has not received from local income (PAD). Such phenomenon was shows by the study results thas the rate of fiscal decentralization in the province was still under 20%. Therefore, there was a need for more autonomous local development management. It was expected that such autonomy would bring about fiscal fulfillment and independence in collecting local income. This study aimed to analyse variables affecting fiscal autonomy in Central Sulawesi. The variables consisted of as follow : investment and income per capita. Data used for the research were time series secondary data for the period of 2001 – 2006, which in turn, were converted to quarterly data analysed by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and descriptive model. Theories applied for the study were local financial strengths-related theories such as local finance, local autonomy and fiscal decentralisation theory, investment theory and gross regional domestic product theories. From the analysis the study the variable of investment have any effect on the fiscal autonomy in Central Sulawesi Province. Meanwhile, and the variables income per kapita also did not have only effect on the fiscal autonomy. Fiscal autonomy in the era of local autonomy, its fiscal dependence on the central government was still dominant. This might be observed by the proportion of General Allocation Fund (DAU) upon Total of Local Income (TPD), 61,36%. The other dimension reflected that the contribution of both local Income (PAD) and Tax and Non-tax share (BHPBP) to the Total of local Income (TPD) was still low, 24,18% and 6,24%, previous year surplus 6,76& and local loans 0,77%. According to the above analysis it came into a conclusion that the financial strengths of the Central Sulawesi Province were still inadequate from the perspective of fiscal autonomy. This study result recommended the government of Central Sulawesi Province should make available any policy that result in condusive climate for investors, increase in economic growth and minimizing dependency on the central government by means of proper developmental strategies in favor of the local economic potensials. Seiring dengan perkembangan otonomi daerah secara umum ternyata kondisi keuangan Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah kurang didukung oleh pendanaan yang bersumber dari Pendapatan Asli Daerah (PAD). Hal ini ditunjukkan dari hasil penelitian bahwa derajat desentralisasi fiskal di Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah berada di bawah 20 %. Karena itu daerah dituntut untuk mengelola pembangunan daerahnya secara mandiri. Hal ini menimbulkan konsekuensi terhadap kemandirian pemenuhan fiskal dan kebebasan dalam mengumpulkan penerimaan daerah. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis variabel-variabel yang mempengaruhi kemandirian fiskal di Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah. Variabel-variabel yang digunakan meliputi : investasi dan pendapatan perkapita. Data yang digunakan adalah data sekunder (time series) rentang waktu 2001 – 2006 yang diubah dalam bentuk data kuartalan Data ini di analisis dengan kuadrat terkecil (Ordinary Least Squares = OLS) dan metode deskriptif. Teori yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah teori kemampuan keuangan daerah termasuk didalamnya teori keuangan daerah, teori otonomi daerah dan desentralisasi fiskal, teori investasi, pendapatan perkapita. Hasil analisis OLS menunjukkan bahwa variabel investasi berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap Kemandirian Fiskal di Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah. Sedangkan pendapatan perkapita tidak berpengaruh terhadap kemandirian fiskal di Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah. Selanjutnya kemandirian fiskal Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah di era otonomi daerah, tingkat ketergantungan fiskalnya terhadap pemerintah pusat masih cukup besar, hal ini ditandai dari proporsi DAU terhadap TPD sebesar 61,36% Di sisi lain, kontribusi PAD maupun BHPBP terhadap TPD sangat rendah yaitu masingmasing sebesar 24,18% dan 6,24 %, sisa anggaran tahun lalu sebesar 6,76% dan pinjaman daerah sebesar 0,77%.Berdasarkan hasil di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa kemampuan keuangan Sulawesi Tengah di tinjau dari derajat kemandirian fiskal masih kurang. Hasil studi ini merekomendasikan bahwa pemerintah daerah Propinsi Sulawesi Tengah seharusnya melakukan kebijakan penciptaan iklim yang kondusif bagi investor, memperhatikan kebijakan untuk mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi daerah dan meminimalisir ketergantungan terhadap pusat dengan melakukan strategi pembangunan terhadap potensi ekonomi daerah.

Xin Yao

As the characteristics of rural finance is presented with small exchange quantity,high frequency,decentralizing,covering large areas and lacking of avouch condition,the rural cooperative finance credit risk strategic tends to take it as its important feature to develop revenue correlation loan and make use of correct forecast to anticipate revenue and use separate elements and big number principle to carry through credit venture management.

Ramakrishna Nallathiga

Local government finances have been assuming greater importance in India, particularly after the decentralization movement started with the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments in 1992. The structure and trend of the finances of urban local governments is widely varied, yet, it is not so well-documented. This paper is an attempt to provide an outline of urban public finances of select cities in India. It presents the structure of the aggregates of municipal finances of these select cities and the trends over a period of time, so as to give an overview of how well they are placed and how good their movements are. It discusses both revenue and expenditure accounts as well as the capital and current account balances of the urban local governments. Local government finances of cities—both on the revenue and expenditure side—present a weak base and loose foundations compared to those of other countries, and therefore, point to the need for bringing about reforms in that direction among these institutions.

Andrew Kiggundu

ABSTRACT\nPrioritizing public tramjport in large cities requires huge amount of money.\nIn Kuala Lumpur for example, public transport services are relatively poor and inefficient due in part to the inability by the major operators to mobilize ample investment capital. Besides, the new funding systems such as the Public Transportation Trust Fund (PTTF) may not be able to solve the problem because they are still unclear and incoherent. Other key challenges are: lack of a pro-transit policy. rapid motorization. urban decentralization as well as dependence on fare\nrevenue and banks to fund new investments. CrucianF. due to the poor design of private rail concessions, government intervention has been inevitable.\n\nKeywords: large cities, public transit, Kuala Lumpur, funding

Chunmei Song

A new efficient group blind signature scheme with membership revocation on the basis of ACJT group scheme was provided.Drawing on the thought of the membership revocation of Chen,in the process of signature,it only uses a random number to decrease two zero-knowledge proofs of the original program to one,and decreases the mode index operation,thus shortens the length of signatures,while the group blind signature thinking proposed by C.Popescu is joined in the signature process,increases blind to the improved group signature with the membership revocation,and the program has also effectively addressed the flaw of linkability of the group blind signature programs proposed by C.Popescu.The new efficient group blind signature scheme with membership revocation and unlinkability can be applied to multi-bank electronic cash system,used to realize the multi-bank electron cash system which can abolish the group members,enables the electronic cash system to conform to the application of the real financial system.

Cao Zheng, Liu Li

In 2005,Wang,et al.proposed a threshold proxy multi designated-verifiers signature scheme(Wang-Fu) by combining the properties of the threshold proxy signature and the multi designated-verifiers signature.In the same year,Chen,et al.also proposed a designated-verifier signature scheme.It is shown that the manager of the set of all verifiers can directly forge signatures,so that,each verifier should give zero knowledge proof for the partial data generated in verifying phase by using his secret key,and that CFT(Chen-Feng-Tan)scheme does not satisfy the non-transferability,i.e.,the designated-verifier can prove to a third party that the signature is generated by the signer.The reason is that the scheme directly follows from the technique in Schnorr signature.The designated-verifier can easily transform the signature into a common signature with respect to the signer's public parameters.

Sun Hong-xia

To a great extent, there exists similarity in the cause,content and primary result of both the reform of public finance decentralization and the reform of state—owned enterprises in our country. The reform of state—owned enterprises has been accomplished completely,however,the reform of public finance decentralization has undergone a setback,which is characterized by the enhancement of central public finance concentration. Through comparison and analysis,the author makes a theoretical explanations of the cause of this phenomenon and makes an empirical test.

Yang Yu

Digital signature is used in e-commerce and e-government more and more widely, most because it guarantees the integral-ity, facticity of signature data and undeniability of digital signature. But in practical application it is often needed that more users sign the same paper, so in this case, users need multi-signature. This paper proposed a digital multi-signature scheme based on conic curve over Zn. It can avoid the cheating by signers by Zero-knowledge proof, sending signature again and again by adding time symbol, fabricating signature by embedding signature into point of conic Curve. Its security is based on the difficulties in factor-izing large integer and computing discrete logarithm, so it has stronger dependability and ability of anti-decoding.