Blockchain Papers

Karthik Lakshmanan, Dionisio de Niz, Ragunathan Rajkumar, Gabriel Moreno

No abstract is available for this record.

Mohammad Mahmoody, David Xiao

We prove new results regarding the complexity of various complexity classes under randomized oracle reductions. We first prove that BPPPSZK⊆ AM ∩ coAM, where PSZK is the class of promise problems having statistical zero knowledge proofs. This strengthens the previously known facts that PSZK is closed under NC1truth-table reductions (Sahai and Vadhan, J. ACM '03) and that PPSZK⊆ AM ∩ coAM (Vadhan, personal communication). Our proof relies on showing that a certain class of real-valued functions that we call ℝ-TUAM can be approximated using an AM protocol. Then we investigate the power of randomized oracle reductions with relation to the notion of instance checking (Blum and Kannan, J. ACM '95). We observe that a theorem of Beigel implies that if any problem in TFNP such as Nash equilibrium is NP-hard under randomized oracle reductions, then SAT is checkable. We also observe that Beigel's theorem can be extended to an average-case setting by relating checking to the notion of program testing (Blum et al., JCSS '93). From this, we derive that if one-way functions can be based on NP-hardness via a randomized oracle reduction, then SAT is checkable. By showing that NP has a non-uniform tester, we also show that worst-case to average-case randomized oracle reduction for any relation (or language) R E NP implies that R has a nonuniform instance checker. These results hold even for adaptive randomized oracle reductions.

Eugen Dogariu

Local authority financing is currently at the heart of the political debate. All the states are faced with the challenge of reconciling the need to control and reduce public spending with greater financial autonomy in local government; they are accordingly seeking ways of achieving an equitable distribution of financial resources among the different levels of government in a context of budgetary cutbacks at every level of public administration. If strengthening democracy means strengthening local selfgovernment, this in turn means establishing systems of financing for local authorities which are at once efficient, fair and consistent with the state's economic imperatives. In other words, the principle of subsidiary, decentralization and local finances are all interdependent.In Romania this process started in 1990 and it is on the move even today. This paper is trying to find, by using economic instruments, what is the degree in which we succeed to create a real local financial selfgovernment.

Norman Nyazema

Historically, health care in Zimbabwe was provided primarily to cater to colonial administrators and the expatriate, with separate care or second-provision made for Africans. There was no need for legislation to guarantee its provision to the settler community. To address the inequities in health that had existed prior to 1980, at independence, Zimbabwe adopted the concept of Equity in Health and Primary Health Care. Initially, this resulted in the narrowing of the gap between health provision in rural areas and urban areas. Over the years, however, there have been clear indications of growing inequities in health provision and health care as a result of mainly Economic Structural Adjustment Policies (ESAP), 1991–1995, and health policy changes. Infant and child mortality have been worsened by the impact of HIV/AIDS and reduced access to affordable essential health care. For example, life expectancy at birth was 56 in the 1980s, increased to 60 in 1990 and is now about 43. Morbidity (diseases) and mortality (death rates) trends in Zimbabwe show that the population is still affected by the traditional preventable diseases and conditions that include nutritional deficiencies, communicable diseases, pregnancy and childbirth conditions and the conditions of the new born. The deterioration of the Zimbabwean health services sector has also partially been due to increasing shortages of qualified personnel. The public sector has been operating with only 19 per cent staff since 2000. Many qualified and competent health workers left the country because of the unfavourable political environment. The health system in Zimbabwe has been operating under a legal and policy framework that in essence does not recognize the right to health. Neither the pre-independence constitution nor the Lancaster House constitution, which is the current Constitution of Zimbabwe, made specific provisions for the right to health. Progress made in the 1980s characterized by adequate financing of the health system and decentralized health management and equity of health services between urban and rural areas, which saw dramatic increases in child survival rates and life expectancy, was, unfortunately, not consolidated. As of 2000 per capita health financing stood at USD 8.55 as compared to USD 23.6, which had been recommended by the Commission of Review into the Health Sector in 1997. At the beginning of 2008 it had been dramatically further eroded and stood at only USD 0.19 leading to the collapse of the health system. Similarly, education in Zimbabwe, in addition to the changes it has undergone during the different periods since attainment of independence, also went through many phases during the colonial period. From 1962 up until 1980, the Rhodesia Front government catered more for the European child. Luckily, some mission schools that had been established earlier kept on expanding taking in African children who could proceed with secondary education (high school education). Inequity in education existed when the ZANU-PF government came into power in 1980. It took aggressive and positive steps to redress the inequalities that existed in the past. Unfortunately, the government did not come up with an education policy or philosophy in spite of massive expansion and investment. The government had cut its expenditure on education because of economic and political instability. This has happened particularly in rural areas, where teachers have left the teaching profession.

Lluís Bonet, Emmanuel Négrier

The redistribution of powers concerning cultural policy corresponds to a specific historical trajectory as well as to political and commercial dynamics. Thirty years since the 1978 Constitution, Spain is a quasi-federal state. Their cultural life and policies have expanded and have been decentralized. The redistribution process is a result of the search of effectiveness confronted with the question of the legitimization of power. Legitimacy is a permanent theme of debate as well as a discursive and strategic instrument between institutional actors, and it sheds light on the apparent inconsistencies of the multi-level governance of cultural policies. To study the different aspects of these relationships, the article principally focuses on three areas. The first is an institutional analysis, which allows us to determine the place of each institutional actor within the network of cultural policies as well as the horizontal and vertical interactions. The second is an analysis of the public financing of culture, which permits us to measure the quantitative impact of cultural policies within the centre–periphery dynamic. The third is an analysis of public policies, which allows a comparative approach to the dynamics of the autonomous community regime. The dialectic between differentiation and standardization, a mark of cultural policies modernity in the context of centre–periphery relationships, is a result of the pressure from the main players on the different Spanish cultural and territorial markets. Examples of “good practices” mimicry as well as of “new” pattern models, like the new Arts Council of Catalonia, are used to expose the non-existence of a formal Spanish model of cultural policy, but shows the process of innovation-reply product strategies, and the dialectic between political autonomy and homogenization processes.

Monika Murzyn‐Kupisz

The political transformation in Poland led to the decentralization of many activities from the state level to that of democratically elected governments at regional and local levels. Since 1999 each of the newly established regions has to formulate and implement policies in numerous fields, including culture and heritage. The cultural policies that they have pursued are influenced not only by structures inherited from socialist times, regional artistic traditions, perceived development needs and aspirations but also by the ability of particular regions to seize the opportunities provided by them (for example by the European Union funds) and by approaching culture as an important factor in economic and social development. Using the example of the Małopolska region, the author examines the regional cultural policy as evident in strategic documents, the financing of cultural institutions, programmes and projects on the regional level.

Francisco Bernardo Álvarez

La próxima cuarta generación (4G) de redes de comunicaciones móviles celulares considera una interfaz radio basada en OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). Esta tecnología ofrece robustez a la propagación multicamino y diversidad en frecuencia gracias a la división del ancho de banda de operación en un conjunto de pequeños subcanales en frecuencia para así alcanzar un uso eficiente del espectro. Sin embargo, un importante desafío en una interfaz radio OFDMA es la manera en la que los subcanales en frecuencia se asignan a las distintas celdas. En primer lugar, la carga de tráfico podría variar a lo largo del tiempo y del espacio, de modo que los clásicos patrones fijos de asignación de espectro (es decir, los esquemas de planificación de frecuencias) pueden conducir a una carencia de recursos en ciertas celdas o a una falta de aprovechamiento de los mismos en otras. En segundo lugar, los futuros marcos reguladores del espectro cambiarán la mentalidad sobre su uso, planteando la coexistencia de usuarios primarios y secundarios del espectro en una misma área geográfica. Por lo tanto, una adecuada gestión del espectro primario podría facilitar la aparición de oportunidades del uso del espectro para usuarios secundarios a la vez que el operador podría obtener una nueva entrada de ingresos por ese uso. Finalmente, los futuros escenarios celulares tenderán a ser descentralizados, especialmente con la aparición de nuevos despliegues basados en femtoceldas (puntos de acceso de limitada cobertura desplegados por el propio usuario en la banda espectral en la que el operador tiene licencia), donde se requerirá un alto grado de independencia a la hora de decidir los canales que usa cada femtocelda, ya que, obviamente, las tareas centralizadas planificación de frecuencias tienen poco sentido práctico en estos escenarios.<br/><br/>Esta tesis contribuye a la investigación sobre la asignación de espectro en redes móviles celulares 4G basadas en OFDMA proponiendo una solución para manejar dinámicamente la asignación de espectro por celda. Con este fin, se proponen estrategias dinámicas asignación de espectro (en inglés Dynamic Spectrum Assigment: DSA) y un marco práctico para ejecutarlas. Para reducir costes operacionales y la intervención humana en el proceso, el marco DSA propuesto se ha diseñado basándose en conceptos de autoorganización de modo que la red puede de forma autónoma (i) observar el funcionamiento de la asignación actual de espectro, (ii) analizar si una nueva asignación de espectro es necesaria, y (iii) decidir una nueva asignación de espectro que se adapte mejor a las condiciones de la red. Además, se propone una arquitectura funcional centralizada y descentralizada que permite que el marco DSA pueda aplicarse a varios escenarios, desde escenarios macrocelulares donde típicamente se emplea un control centralizado, a futuros escenarios con femtoceldas donde los nodos son prácticamente independientes y requieren de decisiones autónomas a nivel de celda para la asignación de espectro. La tarea de decisión del marco DSA reside en las estrategias DSA propuestas, donde una de ellas se basa en el aprendizaje máquina para explotar el conocimiento adquirido previamente en el pasado. Además, esta estrategia tiende a seleccionar una asignación de espectro óptima en el sentido de que maximiza una señal de recompensa definida apropiadamente en términos de métricas del funcionamiento de la red (e.g., eficiencia espectral, SINR, entre otras). Ciertamente, la autoorganización y el aprendizaje máquina en el contexto de la asignación de espectro en interfaces radio basadas en OFDMA se han explotado poco y constituyen así una novedad importante derivada del trabajo de esta tesis.<br/><br/>Los resultados revelan importantes mejoras sobre estrategias del estado del arte en términos de eficiencia espectral (en bits/s/Hz), satisfacción de la calidad de servicio de los usuarios, fairness entre el throughput obtenido por los usuarios, y la capacidad para generar oportunidades para el uso secundario del espectro en grandes áreas geográficas. También, el marco DSA propuesto basado en autoorganización muestra atractivas capacidades desde la perspectiva del despliegue inicial, donde los nodos son capaces de autoconfigurarse después de su encendido introduciendo un impacto mínimo en sistema ya desplegado. Así el marco propuesto constituye una contribución práctica para solucionar el despliegue de millares de femtoceldas en un escenario macrocelular. Next fourth generation (4G) of cellular mobile networks envisage a radio interface based on OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). OFDMA offers frequency diversity and robustness against multipath channel propagation thanks to the division of a wide bandwidth into small OFDMA frequency resources, so that an efficient spectrum usage is attained. However, one important challenge in a 4G OFDMA-based radio interface of a cellular network is the way in which OFDMA frequency resources are assigned to cells. First, intercell interference must be mitigated to achieve the highest spectral efficiency. Second, traffic loads could vary along time and space, so typical fixed spectrum assignment patterns (i.e., frequency planning) could lead to lack of spectrum resources in some cells or underutilization of them in others. Third, future regulatory spectrum frameworks will change the mindset about the usage of the spectrum by planning the co-existence of primary (licensees) and secondary users of the spectrum in the same geographical area. Hence, an adequate primary management of the spectrum could ease the appearance of spectrum usage opportunities for secondary users at the same time that the primary operator could obtain a new revenue income for that usage. Finally, future cellular scenarios will tend to be decentralized, especially with the appearance of new femtocell deployments (short-range user-deployed access points in the operator's licensed spectrum band), where a high degree of independency when deciding the usage of OFDMA frequency resources will be needed, since, obviously, centralized frequency planning tasks has little practical sense in those scenarios.<br/><br/>This thesis contributes to the research on the spectrum assignment in 4G OFDMA-based mobile cellular networks by proposing a solution to dynamically manage the cell-by-cell spectrum assignment. To this end, adequate Dynamic Spectrum Assignment (DSA) strategies and a practical framework to execute them are proposed. In order to reduce operational costs and to reduce human intervention, the DSA framework has been designed based on self-organization so that the network is able to autonomously (i) observe the performance of current spectrum assignment, (ii) analyze if a new spectrum assignment is needed, and (iii) decide a new spectrum assignment to better adapt to networks conditions. Furthermore, a centralized and decentralized functional architecture is proposed so that the framework can be applied to a vast number of scenarios, ranging from typical macrocell scenarios where centralized control is employed, to future femtocell scenarios where nodes are almost independent and require autonomous spectrum assignment decisions at the cell level. The decision task of the framework resides on proposed DSA strategies, where one of them is based on machine learning to exploit knowledge previously acquired in the past. Moreover, this machine learning strategy tends to select a spectrum assignment that is optimal in the sense that maximizes a given reward signal appropriately defined in terms of network performance metrics (e.g., spectral efficiency, SINR, among others). Certainly, self-organization and machine learning on the context of spectrum assignment in OFDMA based radio interfaces have been little exploited and thus constitutes a major novelty of the work of this thesis.<br/><br/>Performance results reveal important improvements over state-of-the-art strategies in terms of spectral efficiency (i.e. in bits/s/Hz), users' QoS satisfaction, fairness between the throughput obtained by users, and capacity for generating opportunities for secondary spectrum usage in large geographical areas. Also, the proposed DSA framework, based on self-organization, demonstrates appealing capabilities from the perspective of initial deployment, where nodes are able to self-configure after switch-on introducing a minimal impact on the already deployed system, being then a practical contribution to solve the deployment of thousands of femtocells in macrocell environments.

Amy Dru Stanley

In the fateful year before peace came at Appomattox—as slaves pursued their exodus from bondage and the Civil War dragged on—a counterpoint arose between two antislavery decrees under debate in the United States Congress. That counterpoint illuminates conceptions of universal human rights forged at an epic moment in the downfall of New World slavery. One decree became the Thirteenth Amendment; all but forgotten is the other, a congressional act to “encourage Enlistments” in the Union Army. The amendment provided for abolishing slavery everywhere in the United States and its territories. The enlistment measure freed soldiers' wives and children owned by masters in the loyal border states exempt from the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. As destroying slavery became inseparable from vanquishing the South, bondsmen refused to go to war unless, in exchange, they won their families' freedom as well as their own. “It is a burning shame to this country,” affirmed congressional abolitionists, “to hold the wives and the children in slavery of men who are periling their lives before the rebel legions.” A month before the war's end, on the very day of Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural, March 4, 1865, the measure took effect. As the Thirteenth Amendment awaited ratification and as the president spoke of malice toward none, upwards of 50,000 slave wives and children went free.1 In a world in flux, where constitutional change flowed from the tides of war, the abolition of slavery fused with freedom endowed by marriage, thereby tethering a new birth of human rights to enduring domestic bonds. That counterpoint casts new light on the making of abolition—a problem of enduring historical and constitutional significance. It reveals not simply how Congress asserted its sovereignty to nullify chattel relations and secure human rights, but also what counted as slavery and freedom as the advance of the Union Army overthrew old ways of life. Simply put, it manifests what abolition was meant to overturn and to create. For both the Thirteenth Amendment and the enlistment measure were acts of abolition. Both split asunder the relation of master and slave, destroying constitutionally protected property in human beings without compensating owners. Both turned chattel into free persons. Arising together amid the crisis of the Civil War, they belonged to a tradition of declaring rights and invalidating unjust forms of sovereignty that had emerged throughout the Atlantic world in the Age of Revolution, a tradition that wedded emancipation to marriage bonds among ex-slaves—from Haiti to Jamaica to the American South to Brazil.2 Their juxtaposition, however, has never been systematically studied; indeed, the enlistment measure barely appears in landmark scholarship on abolition or constitutional transformation.3 Overshadowed by the antislavery amendment, the wartime of freedom has the for a from the of to the of 1865, Congress the decrees month as never before that the Atlantic the rights of The abolition amendment was a and of the enlistment measure was an act of abolition—a on slave marriage bonds. it an of congressional the domestic of the slave loyal masters of the wives and children of bondsmen turned Union the for the emancipation on slave not in a to the of the the measure what slavery the of chattel to and a In the amendment and the measure the of abolishing slavery as a domestic by property in human for in the of the slavery and marriage to together as relations of domestic the master of a to the and of both and in and the in the of the the of all the of chattel bondage to In Thirteenth Amendment not what abolition but what freedom as to as slavery. the counterpoint between the abolition decrees is the of an amendment in in It to light a the of in for abolition but their from Thirteenth Amendment the of the antislavery by the of human rights by chattel slavery. under the abolition amendment, slavery has to a of and the of slavery in abolition never in Thirteenth Amendment It is as and the of Congress had never universal emancipation by of In the of the Thirteenth Amendment illuminates a of the American human rights of rights in the of Congress to in of the and as slavery by the a of landmark and of and the Thirteenth Amendment has never been a of rights the of to the in under the Congress in the slave but never to the of slavery or the domestic slave has to hold is at Amendment of and it is the that the Congress has in from and to of and rights, as the not to or are not as human rights but from exchange, by congressional constitutional from that the of the emerged not with slave emancipation but from it the of antislavery to where the Thirteenth Amendment as a of universal human The of that rights to abolition and to the counterpoint between the Thirteenth Amendment and the enlistment In that counterpoint a of the of slavery and freedom at the moment of abolition and the of and sovereignty to that on both the of the of slavery abolition and a rights tradition with the of the of the two abolition decrees reveals that the of the Thirteenth Amendment in the slave where the master both and to new into the Thirteenth its and its to its The is to as to advance antislavery and of human rights at the or the second is a what the but what meant by on the as they the to slavery and affirmed freedom as to The is what the of slavery had to with the Thirteenth and what the Thirteenth Amendment had to with antislavery of human the of the of the of the chattel relations by the a all the the freedom that a owned by a loyal master to in a of As the abolition amendment and enlistment measure in president It is to to go to on the are and what to for this or as as and The Congress as the debate abolition of human beings with freedom and the to slavery as a constitutional amendment or by a act as the of chattel slavery and the of Congress to that the enlistment measure abolition by For both decrees Lincoln's that slave property to masters loyal to the Union by the Civil debate on the amendment, as in the of Congress the of slave wives and it is to this of slavery and a at the of A year as Union a “It is for the and that of with and abolishing the slavery by the and and the two abolition decrees and in the in amendment to the the enlistment measure from on and the a year they were both of In Congress the the enlistment measure into the war dragged on and the states with the The counterpoint between was to all in Congress. it is a measure to “It is a very and It simply for the and the of the with its It of constitutional with all that the slave property of loyal the of the the freed soldiers' owned by rebel the Emancipation rebel and the of the as a for for the The was to the amendment and the measure in two to end, As the is to slavery it for a constitutional amendment but how it to that both of to it to its by the of the of the men the measure as to but not that it is for the of to the United the are that the amendment not by the and are to all and in to to this in advance of the Thirteenth Amendment or as a the at slave wives and children owned by masters loyal to the property by the the bonds of marriage between the enlistment measure slavery. the amendment was universal in its by all in Congress that the amendment and meant to free slave wives and it was all the that the on the amendment, on came to on its for but all The the of the Thirteenth but to light the of constitutional abolition and the rights at of two for the amendment before the were the by the and from the of slavery as a for the been the United or to their Congress to this by were the by who on of the of are before the that hold as a and the Congress to all and to this into everywhere in the United was the amendment had in was for the of the enlistment in the on the of the to the 1865, and of A in the constitutional of slavery was that the amendment spoke amendment spoke persons. The amendment the everywhere and slavery in the amendment a of universal human rights, all as the not it provided a for for a moment to to the rights of and in the of Both of the abolition amendment universal the the of the by that of freedom to as of human rights is in of a as was of and Congress that as as a new and into it to in the is at won by emancipation of the has been to the As by amendment the before the that was a the was to all as by free or by before the by a of to the of it was was the the as the American not from the not with historical of who had in the amendment, that to but not to all to or and go to the old by For the of chattel slavery. the Thirteenth Amendment not universal the freedom of all not For a in the of arose the that the abolition amendment been the of a that of all as free and before the also of in the Civil and the in the of the the rights arose to to the was or the relation between men and is to the or before the in a the of all men before the a to a a as free as a A to and as free as before the the was meant to the amendment, not in the who is slavery not to in its a of the who that very day had amendment to a in the by that the marriage from the of relations as in and and been for a abolition. a freedom went as the the amendment, not the and the of a universal of human a before it was to the of the in that had to marriage with bondage in from of constitutional abolition by human rights that the on the of slavery was but It was the enlistment measure that to the of the freedom by the debate on the Thirteenth both to the Union Army and to at the slave Congress on the and masters in the loyal states in slave and children and their the from slave property as it never the as for Congress to the For that an antislavery of property in human beings and as the for the new of in congressional abolition turned on of war, marriage, and the the for Union Congress the of the enlistment it constitutional abolition as a war to the of human bondage to the property rights by the the measure both the Emancipation and the it rebel or loyal masters for the of their it property rights in as well as in human and to the measure to the to its It was a debate at as as that the Thirteenth and it went on indeed, the for the had been in it a of from to of but were to at it the in of or of in Union and freedom to as well as and in a that spoke in universal of into making war for the United States and simply that and children were as of or marriage was or was not or by the Congress the for their the of slave marriage, the of and the of of the counterpoint between the measure and the in March The of the congressional and the constitutional at as the debate into the was not human rights the and the the of Congress to war a slaves in loyal on slave marriage bonds at the turned Union and not how and to in and and to bondage that the and it that by the constitutional to of the slave master and to human a and rights by the and of Congress It has been and that the is the Congress has the to the and the is in that spoke of war, and congressional spoke of and constitutional both on and was Congress the to loyal masters of slave to what of the on Congress the to a that Congress has the to the that it has to the That was the to also a tradition to of a at war for In for the of arose the of as the Civil War was for the not for the the tradition had never the to slave and In making constitutional with the of of Union and with an to on of congressional abolition. of both and of from of the rights of with spoke war and The in its that secure the of the and in its and spoke of and to its to an but also in and the of to the emancipation to as as to the and the this from the of the and to an in freedom on slave marriage, the of Congress on both and It was an that the of the with for the Thirteenth was in the for a at this moment is master of the of slavery everywhere in the United without constitutional It it all of to this of congressional the between slave and the between master and slave, the of the abolition an was with of the for Amendment property rights were the antislavery of and property and its for without to the wartime of the constitutional that amendment has been the enlistment measure as slavery as as and as as all the that in the Congress to the to rights of were bondsmen to for the border states had of to the were slave wives and children of as they not into the war for the the measure as well as the of in the a is the of the is to slave of their it is to the it is to it is to the and to slave It was and In the to loyal masters as with a of property rights and with a to the of chattel slavery. to the of and in for slave wives and a of emancipation by the of the had been by abolition in the of and slave the measure to at as well as slave property by all an in in or making or by or by of for the the of the to this they are and for to their spoke of abolitionists, also spoke of toward slaves protected by masters the of As slavery affirmed its a of abolition with a of that freedom was to a of and the Union for slave wives and children free by Congress. the relation between the and children and their not without As spoke of to a and of both the that a and the that the is Congress to the and the the is the to a in the of in the the antislavery of the enlistment measure in abolition before the day of the Thirteenth but the was that the measure as As act to the of its as in a and the rights constitutional and As in this the of loyal masters to slave wives and children to the of the of war, and the bonds of slave marriage as for Congress to abolition. In the of the enlistment amid the of the South and the Congress turned to the and the of slavery and It was not that simply as a to the of the Thirteenth Amendment in of human rights free it was the very of the of the debate abolition. by as well as by the of Union Army Congress to for the Thirteenth Amendment or with the enlistment measure or the the of abolition the slave but also of and a of slave antislavery Congress came to the of slavery. under the enlistment freedom in bonds of marriage that the bonds of as as under the as were a of as a slave as a freed was to rights simply by of the antislavery on the enlistment as the men in Congress. it the of the of the it as and as and that the was slavery by antislavery The as that had the on the both antislavery and was the of the slave to both a loyal master and a the In was the of a turned as slaves had marriage rights by was the Union for in light of the counterpoint between the abolition free a measure with constitutional of for the not and but also men of and men the the debate became a on the of slavery. the of the war and the the of rights, and the of property in to from slave wives and the on their was a slave That was the to and to For the measure on the that the bonds of slave marriage were as to the bonds of chattel slavery. is the of a the antislavery of as the in as was March to the that men a the and the and the As of this and it very to who has a or how wives to the of the slave was for it not the between and but also the of of as well as the of the slave as into the of that was marriage relation in between chattel had rights of on in for slave to as has a the for the of the is to in or where has a and to the of the the enlistment measure simply took slave marriage for border however, who to in a was a in the of slaves were and but chattel to are to a in has a in and that the to with to is not marriage was a of Congress “to as marriage that is not marriage, the of a of slave all freedom by the and to it by the the are at very in a that but an is to the to abolitionists, the the of the not how slave marriage bonds free a from the bonds of slavery. As the of the measure was its of freedom not the of a slave is the of a the war freed the of and but not as a that the relation of and is not with and this relation is of as a measure of who the of the that the measure for the to with new of slave marriage, or a year of the measure that slaves or or enlistment day counted as of marriage, with children to freedom the marriage had the of the Thirteenth is this to the in is a who was not a of a The was freedom by slave marriage bonds that the of both and The was that and it was and or the of a slave this who the Thirteenth affirmed that slave marriage and as and a to the of the slave who the slave to and the to to human not property to not to their marriage the of the slave as was the of how the slave was and under the were not in the a slave without how loyal a the who had the abolition amendment but congressional abolition had to by the the slave of a loyal and for the of the slave and the with a new in March that loyal masters to by and came to debate the with Congress on the of a slave as the of of this chattel in the or or a or a the and they it to the war's the in slave not it very to for the master that by the In a slave at this in the of also a slave very on the slave as on a antislavery were in the loyal slave and for a of freedom the Union the the slave for of simply it for the Union to into the to slaves the is a antislavery men of as of in or at is to are a in the of the was that to the slave however, Congress that the of a slave was For it the of property in human for abolitionists, who it to the both property in and the in they antislavery to not this to the of of to the are in the of the United States in the that to for property for it is that the that slaves are property and by the Congress of the United that the a by a was from the enlistment an act that a slave counted as property under the for a Congress from a loyal master and to a what was the in and The was that had That the not for the Thirteenth all the of the enlistment the of slave marriage by the of with abolition the Congress the counterpoint between the measure and the It was a between antislavery and that had emerged with in the and in wartime with the of Congress free the slave or for an abolition in as was to its March to the in Congress to their the the enlistment measure a to the act the of this by and by and that the the to to the of the and the of the that on the of the and the in the new the amendment had been in both of were and the was to act at all on the enlistment that amendment slavery is throughout the United a this measure the the or for of a slave from the to the and of That free the slave the amendment slavery Congress for a was not simply by but also by the who that the enlistment measure was but in the amendment in they to the and as to who A year with the amendment in the had that this constitutional amendment and this not the to not to free slave in the were to the of to free human where to the hold by of a to freedom to for the counterpoint between the measure and the amendment old between abolition and to the It to to a of the antislavery to the Civil War as an a between and human As Congress abolition or for the amendment that a and the antislavery in the of both and The the of a constitutional amendment the of the to the of the who for their for in the of the not that the men who the the of the by the as it is change it in a constitutional had the on the Thirteenth the of the was for congressional abolition. 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Stuti Khemani

A recent trend in decentralization in
\n several large and diverse countries is the creation of local
\n jurisdictions below the regional level -- municipalities,
\n towns, and villages -- whose spending is almost exclusively
\n financed by grants from both regional and national
\n governments. This paper argues that such grants-financed
\n decentralization enables politicians to target benefits to
\n pivotal voters and organized interest groups in exchange for
\n political support. Decentralization, in this model, is
\n subject to political capture, facilitating vote-buying,
\n patronage, or pork-barrel projects, at the expense of
\n effective provision of broad public goods. There is
\n anecdotal evidence on local politics in several large
\n countries that is consistent with this theory. The paper
\n explores its implications for international development
\n programs in support of decentralization.

Shoba Raja, Sarah Wood, Victoria de Menil, Saju C Mannarath

BACKGROUND: Limited evidence about mental health finances in low and middle-income countries is a key challenge to mental health care policy initiatives. This study aimed to map mental health finances in Ghana, Uganda, India (Kerala state), Sri Lanka and Lao PDR focusing on how much money is available for mental health, how it is spent, and how this impacts mental health services. METHODS: A researcher in each region reviewed public mental health-related budgets and interviewed key informants on government mental health financing. A total of 43 key informant interviews were conducted. Quantitative data was analyzed in an excel matrix using descriptive statistics. Key informant interviews were coded a priori against research questions. RESULTS: National ring-fenced budgets for mental health as a percentage of national health spending for 2007-08 is 1.7% in Sri Lanka, 3.7% in Ghana, 2.0% in Kerala (India) and 6.6% in Uganda. Budgets were not available in Lao PDR. The majority of ring-fenced budgets (76% to 100%) is spent on psychiatric hospitals. Mental health spending could not be tracked beyond the psychiatric hospital level due to limited information at the health centre and community levels. CONCLUSIONS: Mental health budget information should be tracked and made publically accessible. Governments can adapt WHO AIMS indicators for reviewing national mental health finances. Funding allocations work more effectively through decentralization. Mental health financing should reflect new ideas emerging from community based practice in LMICs.

María Molina, Claudia R. Rivarola, César A. Barbero

A water soluble cationic metal complex (tris(2,2′-bipyridine)ruthenium(II)) can be loaded into hydrogels containing acrylamide and/or acrylic acid units. The cationic complex is retained in polymer containing acrylic acid units at high pH and released at low pH. This is likely due to electrostatic interactions of the cation with the carboxylate anions, present at high pH, which are converted into neutral carboxylic acid at low pH, releasing the metal complex. Since the gel contract at low pH, the water soluble cation is also released with the water expelled from the gel. However, a strong retention of the cation inside the gels is observed when acrylamide units are present. A possible explanation is a hydrophobic interaction of the large metal complex with the polyacrylamide network. Using the counteracting electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions of probe molecules with smart hydrogel matrixes it is possible to tune the pH of maximum release away from the pKa of the ionizable group.

Thomas M Annesley

In 5-Card Draw, one of the most popular versions of poker, you start with a specific question: “Can I win with the cards I have decided to play?” The final answer is yes or no. After looking at your initial cards (initial findings) you can be satisfied with what you have (preliminary data) or seek some new cards (new experiments). But in the end you must openly “show your cards” (results). Your cards give you the answer. You cannot hide a card, nor can you add an undealt card to make your hand look better. Playing poker and writing the Results section of a scientific paper have similarities, as I will point out in this article. In poker, how you present your cards affects how your competitors grasp the importance of the cards. One winning set of cards in poker is the straight, defined as 5 consecutively sequenced cards (e.g., 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). You may have this group of cards, but if you present them as 6, 10, 8, 7, 9, your straight is not immediately evident. The worth of cards when presented in a logical manner is clearer and easier to grasp. The same holds true for your Results section. Your important results may be better understood if presented in a certain order. There are several options for the presentation order of results (Table 1 ); one may work better than another for the type of study being reported. The most straightforward approach is to use a chronological order with subheadings that parallel the methods and their sequence presented earlier in the paper. This order allows readers to more easily go back and refer to the methods associated with a given result. Options for presentation order of results. Options for presentation order of results. A second approach is to group results by topic/study group or experiment/measured parameter. An example of this format is a comparison of the diagnostic and analytical performance of 3 assays for serum prostate-specific antigen. If grouped by assay as the topic, the results for diagnostic accuracy, analytical performance, interference testing, and cost analysis for assay 1 would be presented first, followed by a separate presentation of the same results for assay 2 and then assay 3. This order allows the reader to see the results for each assay as a packet of information, which is a logical way to remember information. By comparison, if the results are grouped by measured parameter, important similarities or differences in assay performance may be clearer and can be emphasized as important findings. Grouped by topic: Assay 1: diagnostic accuracy, performance, interferences, cost. Assay 2: diagnostic accuracy, performance, interferences, cost. Assay 3: diagnostic accuracy, performance, interferences, cost. Grouped by measured parameter: Diagnostic accuracy: assay 1, assay 2, assay 3. Performance: assay 1, assay 2, assay 3. Interferences: assay 1, assay 2, assay 3. Cost: assay 1, assay 2, assay 3. In clinical studies that involve multiple groups of individuals or patients receiving different treatments, it is common to order the results from general to specific. The characteristics of the overall study population, such as sex and age distribution, initial and final numbers in each group, and dropouts are first presented. This information is followed by the data and results for each specific group, i.e., starting with the control group or the group receiving the standard treatment, followed by the results for the disease group or the group receiving the experimental treatment. Lastly, if you undertook a study for which the order in which the results are presented is not critical to their being understood, presenting the results from most to least important immediately highlights the results you want to emphasize. Results should be presented in the past tense. The Results section usually ends up heavier on the passive voice, but some conscious use of the active voice can help the flow and readability of the text (e.g., “we observed that the 2 groups” versus “it was observed that the 2 groups”). One valuable lesson I learned about writing a well-crafted Results section came from Zeiger’s book, Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers. The same concept—namely, that data and results are not the same—was discussed more recently in an article by Foote in the journal Chest (see Resources and Additional Reading). Authors can err by offering the reader results but no data, or data but no results. Data are facts and numbers. Data are usually presented in tables and figures as raw data (individual data points) or summarized data (mean, percent, median and range). Results are statements in the main text that summarize or explain what the data show. As an example, let’s use a hypothetical study comparing the effectiveness of radiation treatment, chemotherapy with an existing drug (Blasteride), and a new monoclonal antibody-based therapy (Neuroxomab) for the treatment of neuroblastoma. One of the endpoints in the study is survival rate after diagnosis and initiation of treatment (Figure 1 ). Four ways to present the information in Figure 1 for the reader might be as follows: Two-year survival rates for patients with neuroblastoma treated with Neuroxomab, Blasteride, and radiation. Figure 1 shows the survival rates following diagnosis and initiation of treatment in the 3 treatment groups. At 6 months the survival rates were 95% for the Neuroxomab group, 91% for the Blasteride group, and 39% for the radiation-treated group. At 12 months the rates were 83%, 69%, and 23%;, at 18 months 74%, 17%, and 15%; and at 24 months were 70%, 11%, and 9%. Figure 1 shows the survival rates following diagnosis and initiation of treatment in the 3 treatment groups. At 6 months the survival rates were significantly higher in the Neuroxomab and Blasteride treatment groups compared with the radiation-treatment group. At 12, 18, and 24 months the survival rates in the Neuroxomab group exceeded those of both the Blasteride and radiation-treatment groups. Six months after diagnosis and initiation of treatment, the survival rates for the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups were 2.4 and 2.3 times higher, respectively, than the radiation treatment group (both P < 0.001), but survival rates were not found to differ between the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups (P = 0.56) (Figure 1 ). By 12 months, however, patient survival in the Neuroxomab group was 1.2 times higher than in the Blasteride group (P = 0.031), and 4.3 and 6.4 times higher at 18 and 24 months (both P < 0.001). Six months after diagnosis and initiation of treatment, survival rates in the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups (95% and 91%, respectively) were significantly higher than in the radiation treatment group (39%, P < 0.001 for both), but survival rates were not found to differ between the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups (P = 0.56) (Figure 1 ). By 12 months, however, the patient survival rate in the Neuroxomab group was significantly higher than in the Blasteride group (83% vs 69%, P = 0.031), a difference that became even greater at 18 and 24 months (74% vs 17% and 70% vs 11%; both P < 0.001). The first paragraph above provides data but no results. What do the data show? What is the point? Are the treatment groups statistically different at 6 months? The second paragraph contains results but no data. Is it clear from the figure how much higher the survival rates for patients in the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups were compared with patients in the radiation group and with each other? What is the level of significance of any differences? Paragraphs 3 and 4 above contain both data and results. They describe the important treatment differences and report when the differences occurred and whether they were statistically significant. Paragraph 3 states the magnitude (e.g., 2.4 times higher) of the most important differences between the treatments, and whether the differences were statistically significant. The reader must look at the figure to see the percent survival data, but this is perfectly fine as long as the reader can fairly easily estimate the percentages at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months. Paragraph 4 includes the actual survival rates (e.g., 95%, 91%, and 39% at 6 months) rather than the relative magnitudes of any differences. The inclusion of these survival-rate data in this paragraph is acceptable because the figure contains a lot of information and you are highlighting selected important differences. However, let’s now say that the survival data and P-values had been provided in a table (Table 2 ). Because Table 2 contains the same information included in paragraph 4, you need not repeat this information in both places: Neuroblastoma survival rates over time for Neuroxomab, Blasteride, and radiation-therapy patient groups. P < 0.001 vs radiation group. P = 0.56 vs Blasteride. P = 0.031 vs Blasteride. P < 0.001 vs Blasteride. Not significant vs radiation group. Neuroblastoma survival rates over time for Neuroxomab, Blasteride, and radiation-therapy patient groups. P < 0.001 vs radiation group. P = 0.56 vs Blasteride. P = 0.031 vs Blasteride. P < 0.001 vs Blasteride. Not significant vs radiation group. Six months after diagnosis and initiation of treatment, the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups showed significantly higher survival rates compared with the radiation-treatment group (Table 2 ), but survival rates in the Neuroxomab and Blasteride groups were not found to differ. By 12 months, however, patient survival in the Neuroxomab group was significantly higher than in the Blasteride group, a difference that became even greater at 18 and 24 months. This rule about nonrepetition of data is not absolute, but is a rule that should be broken only in rare circumstances. If a table or figure supplies a large amount of data, it is acceptable to restate a key piece of data in the text, such as the 2 groups in the table with statistically significant differences, if this helps the reader zero-in on an important result without having to plow through a long list of data. In the American judicial system witnesses are sworn in by asking if they will tell the truth (the facts), the whole truth (tell everything), and nothing but the truth (no lies, conjecture, or interpretation). A complete Results section in a scientific paper also satisfies these requirements. Telling the facts is the easy part, because this is the goal of this section: to tell the reader what you found during the study. Requirements 2 and 3 above are areas in which authors can run into problems. Satisfying the second requirement involves an intentional effort to include all data. There are well-crafted guidelines and checklists available that can help you meet the minimal standards for reporting data and results for many types of studies (Table 3 ). As an author you should use the checklists and flow diagrams in these guidelines when appropriate for your study. Doing so not only helps make the strengths, weaknesses, and sources of bias clear to the reader, but also helps you remember to include key data that otherwise inadvertently might have been omitted. For example, how many patients were excluded from the study? How many were lost to follow-up? How many dropouts were there? How many patients finished the study? How many individuals had an inconclusive result or diagnosis? These are all data and results and belong in the Results section. Reporting guidelines for various types of studies. Reporting guidelines for various types of studies. Including all results also means not leaving out a negative result (hiding a card) or a result relevant to the report because it serves some other purpose for you as the author. Anyone who chooses to repeat your work or use your methods will likely encounter the same type of negative results that you did, and the fact that these were not acknowledged in your paper will not serve you well. Referring to “unpublished results” annoys most editors and peer reviewers unless you can present a good argument for not including them. Trying to stake a claim to a future study by presenting an attention-grabbing preliminary result, but then not showing any corresponding data, can make readers question your motive. The Results section is just that: results. To satisfy the third requirement above, this section should contain nothing but the results. No methods, no discussion. There is a temptation to remind the reader about the details of the experiment performed or the method used to generate the results, especially if it has been several pages since the Methods section ended. Method, study, and experimental details should not be restated in the Results section. Of course, you can refer to a specific experiment or method when describing the corresponding results; just do not repeat experimental details already described in the Methods section, as exemplified below. Although well intended as a link between a method and a result, the first 2 sentences of the next paragraph are unnecessary: We compared the death rates for the 262 healthy controls with those of the 203 congestive heart failure patients over a 2-year period. Survival curves were generated with the Masterson mortality index formula. The congestive heart failure group was found to have a significantly higher short-term mortality rate. However, this example is a good opportunity to illustrate how a transition phrase can serve as a link between a previously described experiment and a result without repeating what was in the Methods section: When the 2-year survival curves for healthy controls and congestive heart failure patients were compared, the congestive heart failure group was found to have a significantly higher short-term mortality rate. The only time that experimental details are appropriate for the Results section is when the initial experiments (rightly described in the Methods section) yield data that lead to additional experiments, not part of the original protocol, but which became necessary later on. The description of these experiments may make more sense if included in the Results section with the corresponding results. When reporting results, authors feel an urge to comment on the results, e.g., how the results compared with prior work, were consistent with what was predicted in another paper, or explained the reason that a marker is increased in a disease. The interpretation or analysis of the results, however, belongs in the Discussion section. In the Results section you can describe what the data show, in the Discussion section you describe what the data mean. The purposely incorrect heading here is meant to emphasize the fact that the terms significant, significance, and significantly are used erroneously in many submitted papers. In biomedical publications these terms are intended to identify relationships that have been statistically tested and determined unlikely to have occurred by chance. These terms should also be followed by a mathematical value or limit (e.g., P = 0.067 or P < 0.001). Unless you have such proof of statistical significance, you should use other terms such as substantial, considerable, or noteworthy. Similarly, authors like to draw unwarranted attention to nonsignificant findings by stating that the data “trended toward” or “tended to show.” If the findings are not clear, don’t try to imply something about them that cannot be supported. Lastly, make sure that the Results section is consistent with all of the other sections in the final version of your paper. Is there a result that does not have a corresponding method or experiment in the Methods section? Conversely, is there a method or experiment for which you have reported no results? Is there a result not covered in the Discussion section, or discussion of a result not contained in the Results section? Are the most important results the same as those highlighted in the Abstract? Do the results relate to the study question, hypothesis, or problem first presented in the Introduction? 1. Point out which information is data and which is a result in the following paragraph: Baseline median IL-6 concentrations were 12, 26, 96, and 144 μg/L for categories 1 to 4, respectively, and were not found related to age or sex. Median β-selectin concentrations increased 30% across the 4 categories. Increased disease severity and mortality were associated with higher IL-6 concentrations, but not β-selectin. Intraindividual variation for group 1 was 14% for IL-6 and 36% for β-selectin. 2. Choose whether the presentation of results in the following sentence is chronological, grouped by topic/study group, grouped by experiment/measured parameter, general to specific, or most to least important: The mean (SD) admission interleukin concentrations were 13.6 (1.4) μg/L, 10.3 (1.1) μg/L, and 3.6 (05) μg/L in the coronary bypass graft, percutaneous intervention, and congestive heart failure patient groups, respectively. 3. Pretend that a journal editor has decided that you must remove Table 4 from your paper and place the information it contains into the main text. How might you write a paragraph that presents the data and results in this table? Serum antiproxin concentrations in patients with congestive heart failure. P = 0.019 vs healthy patients. P < 0.001 vs healthy patients. P = 0.017 vs asymptomatic heart failure. Serum antiproxin concentrations in patients with congestive heart failure. P = 0.019 vs healthy patients. P < 0.001 vs healthy patients. P = 0.017 vs asymptomatic heart failure. A Results section that clearly presents your results, makes effective use of both data and results, includes all the important results, and does not wander off into discussion of the results, will result in a better paper and a greater chance of its acceptance for publication. In the end, isn’t that the result you are looking for? Foote M. The proof of the pudding: how to report results and write a good discussion. Chest 2009; 135:866–8. Huth EJ. Writing and publishing in medicine. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1999. Katz MJ. From research to manuscript. New York: Springer; 2009. Lang TA. How to write, publish, and present in the health sciences. Philadelphia: ACP Press; 2010. Zeiger M. Essentials of writing biomedical research papers. New York: McGraw Hill; 2000. Baseline median IL-6 concentrations were 12, 26, 96, and 144 μg/L for categories 1 to 4, respectively [DATA], and were not found related to age or sex [RESULT]. Median β-selectin concentrations increased 30% across the 4 categories [RESULT]. Increased disease severity and mortality were associated with higher IL-6 concentrations, but not β-selectin [RESULT]. Intraindividual variation for group 1 was 14% for IL-6 and 36% for β-selectin [DATA]. The presentation is grouped by experiment/measured parameter, which is the mean admission interleukin concentration. Even though the data are presented from the highest (13.6 μg/L) to the lowest (3.6 μg/L) value, the higher value is not necessarily the most important finding. Median (interquartile range) serum antiproxin concentrations were 99 (36–144), 216 (147–296), and 556 (328–791) ng/L in healthy individuals, asymptomatic heart failure patients, and symptomatic heart failure patients, respectively. The median concentrations in asymptomatic and symptomatic heart failure patients were 2.2-fold higher (P = 0.019) and 5.6-fold higher (P < 0.001), respectively, than in healthy individuals, and symptomatic patients had significantly higher serum antiproxin concentrations compared with asymptomatic patients (P = 0.017). Author Contributions:All authors confirmed they have contributed to the intellectual content of this paper and have met the following 3 requirements: (a) significant contributions to the conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (b) drafting or revising the article for intellectual content; and (c) final approval of the published article. Authors’ Disclosures of Potential Conflicts of Interest:Upon manuscript submission, all authors completed the Disclosures of Potential Conflict of Interest form. Potential conflicts of interest: Employment or Leadership: T.M. Annesley, AACC. Consultant or Advisory Role: None declared. Stock Ownership: None declared. Honoraria: None declared. Research Funding: None declared. Expert Testimony: None declared. Role of Sponsor: The funding organizations played no role in the design of study, choice of enrolled patients, review and interpretation of data, or preparation or approval of manuscript.

Alejandro Jiménez Fernández de Palencia

El primer objetivo de esta tesis es la identificación y análisis de aspectos clave para la gobernanza de los servicios de agua rural en países que adolecen de bajos niveles de cobertura, altos índices de pobreza, se encuentran en procesos de descentralización, reciben un importante apoyo de donantes internacionales. Esta situación es común para muchos países de África Sub-sahariana. Por ello, se eligió Tanzania como objeto de estudio. El segundo objetivo de esta tesis ha sido el ensayo de nuevas herramientas y mecanismos institucionales para la mejora de la eficiencia, equidad y sostenibilidad en la provisión de agua en las zonas rurales, con especial énfasis en el nivel de gobierno descentralizado. Para ello, se desarrollaron experiencias piloto así como procesos de investigación-acción. En el capítulo 1 se estudia el papel desempeñado por los diferentes actores internacionales en la financiación del sector del agua en los países en desarrollo durante la década 1995-2004. En el capítulo 2 se analizan los indicadores existentes para el seguimiento del sector del agua a nivel internacional, específicamente los utilizados para valorar el cumplimiento de los Objetivos del Milenio, así como el Índice de Pobreza Hídrica (Water Poverty Index). Se detallan algunos limitantes en cuanto al alcance y metodología de cálculo de estos indicadores, y se proponen las características básicas que los indicadores deben tener para apoyar la toma de decisiones a nivel gubernamental. En el capítulo 3 se presenta una metodología para el desarrollo de indicadores más completos de acceso al agua, basándose en el Mapeo de Puntos de Agua (Water Point Mapping-WPM). La metodología propuesta, denominada Mapeo Mejorado de Puntos de Agua, incluye la medición de parámetros básicos de calidad del agua y estacionalidad de los servicios. La factibilidad y pertinencia de la adopción de esta metodología a nivel nacional se desarrolló satisfactoriamente a modo de experiencia piloto en dos distritos de Tanzania, con una población rural aproximada de 840.000 personas (capítulo 4). En el capítulo 5 se analiza la sostenibilidad de los servicios de agua rural en relación al tipo de tecnología utilizada para el abastecimiento. El análisis se basa en los datos de 6814 puntos de agua, sobre una población equivalente al 15% de la población rural de Tanzania. El capítulo 6 se analiza el proceso de toma de decisiones, desde el nivel central al nivel comunitario, para la asignación de recursos en el sector del agua rural. Los resultados en los 4 distritos estudiados muestran que menos de la mitad de los proyectos asignados se destinan a zonas con baja cobertura de servicios. Las incoherencias entre el diseño y la implementación de los planes nacionales, y la influencia de los poderes políticos locales son los mayores obstáculos para una equitativa distribución de los recursos. El capítulo 7 detalla el caso de investigación-acción ejecutado a nivel de gobierno local entre 2006 y 2009 con el gobierno del distrito de Same, Tanzania. La mejora de la equidad y la sostenibilidad se fomentaron mediante el desarrollo de herramientas de planificación basadas en el WPM y de mecanismos institucionales para el apoyo a largo plazo a los sistemas de agua rurales. En el capítulo 8 se detallan las conclusiones generales y líneas de investigación futuras. La resolución de los desafíos principales encontrados implican la adopción de paradigmas diferentes: i) la aceptación del agua rural como un servicio responsabilidad del gobierno y no de las comunidades; ii) las actuaciones deben decidirse en función de las necesidades de las comunidades, y no de su capacidad de demanda, iii) el establecimiento de sistemas de información internos que partan desde el nivel local y estén adaptados a las capacidades de actualización disponibles, iv) el desarrollo de mecanismos para la orientación y el seguimiento cercano de los procesos de toma de decisión a nivel local The first objective of this thesis is the identification and analysis of key issues in the governance of rural water services in countries that suffer from a lack of rural water access, high levels of poverty, are under decentralization processes and receive significant donor support. This is a common situation for many Sub-Saharan countries. To address the relevant aspects, Tanzania was taken as a case study and was analyzed in depth. The second objective was to test tools and propose institutional arrangements at that can improve efficiency, equity and sustainability in the provision of water for the rural areas, with special focus at the local government level. This was made through pilot experiences and an action research case study. In Chapter 1 we analyse the role played by the international actors in the financing of the water sector of developing countries, in the period 1995-2004. In Chapter 2 we study existing indicators for international monitoring, specifically the ones used by the Joint Monitoring Programme for the monitoring of the MDGs, as well as the Water Poverty Index (WPI). Some drawbacks are found the indicators’ scope and methodology, which prevents them from being used as policy drivers at national level. The chapter concludes by proposing the main characteristics that those indicators must entail to be useful for governmental decision making. In Chapter 3, a methodology to define water access indicators, based on GIS-based Water Point Mapping (WPM) is proposed. The methodology, named Enhanced Water Point Mapping (EWPM), includes the measurement of basic parameters of quality of water and seasonality of the service. The feasibility and relevance of adopting this methodology at national level was tested with success in two districts in Tanzania, covering a rural population of approximately 840,000 people, as described in Chapter 4. In chapter 5, we analyze the sustainability of systems over time, and the relation between sustainability and technology; this chapter is based on the study of 6814 water points, covering 15% of the rural population in the country. Chapter 6 analyses the aspects affecting financial resource allocation for rural water in Tanzania at all levels, from central government to village level. Results in four districts studied showed that less than half of allocated projects go to underserved areas. Incoherencies between the design and the implementation of the plans and political influences at local level are highlighted as major obstacles to the effective, equitable allocation of resources. In chapter 7, we describe an action research process that was carried out at local government level, together with Same District Council, between 2006 and 2009. The improvement of equity and sustainability was supported through the development of EWPM based planning tools and new institutional arrangements for the long-term support of community managed water supplies. In Chapter 8 the overall conclusions and future research lines are presented. We propose some new paradigms in the sector: i) rural water supply must be considered as a service, with government and not communities as main duty bearers; ii) the adoption of a needs-based approach to projects planning at community level, instead of the current demand driven, iii) the establishment of bottom-up internal information systems adapted to available updating capacities and iv) the development of mechanisms for the guidance and close monitoring of local government decision-making.

Ying-Wei ZHANG, S. Joe QIN

No abstract is available for this record.

Marie-Laure Breuillé, Thierry Madiès, Emmanuelle Taugourdeau

No abstract is available for this record.

Darren Swanson, Stephan Barg, Stephen Tyler, Henry David Venema · 9 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Vaida Bankauskaitė, Christina M. Novinskey

Along with resource generation, financing, and health service delivery, stewardship is a key health system function. However, very little empirical analysis has been carried out on it. This paper aims to fill this gap in the literature by assessing the Ministry of Health's (MoHs) role as a steward of the Spanish National Health System (NHS) after the 2001 decentralization reform of health care management to the Autonomous Communities. We use the following stewardship framework with six sub-functions for the analysis, looking at the MoH's ability to: (1) formulate strategic policy framework; 2) ensure a fit between policy objectives and organizational structure and culture; (3) ensure tools for implementation; (4) build coalitions and partnerships; (5) generate intelligence, and (6) ensure accountability. We describe the stewardship function, identify existing challenges and issues in the Spanish case, and reflect upon methodological aspects of this exercise. We use reports, documents, articles, and official statistics to complete the analysis. Overall, we find the MoH to give an average performance in its role as the steward of the health system. The MoH has progressed particularly well in generating intelligence as well as formulating a strategic policy framework over recent years. However, it lacks the appropriate authority to efficiently coordinate the health system and to ensure that the Autonomous Communities implement policies that are in-line with overall NHS objectives.

William R. Doyle, Michael K. McLendon, James C. Hearn

No abstract is available for this record.

Fernando Toboso, Eric Scorsone

From 1979 to 1983, a new intermediate level of government was created in Spain. This article focuses on the financial aspects of political decentralization in Spain. How much power to tax do the new regional parliaments and executives enjoy? What other sources of income do they dispose of? Which rules have been settled for regulating their tax and non-tax sources of income? Has fiscal decentralization affected fiscal discipline? Are these governments now financially autonomous? These are the questions addressed. The article shows that, with the exception of the Basque Country and Navarre, regional governments were financed mainly through intergovernmental grants during the 1980s and 1990s. However, as a result of several recent reforms, their power to tax as well as their financial autonomy has increased substantially since the mid-1990s, mainly through their participation by law in the revenues of several central taxes (known as ceded taxes) upon which they also enjoy significant regulatory rights. As the ceded taxes mechanism is not a simple revenue-sharing formula in Spain, the article concludes that the Spanish model departs from both the more uniform and top-down German model and the more heterogeneous and competitive one characterizing the taxing rights of the States in US federalism.

Michael A. Covington, Joe D. McFall

No abstract is available for this record.

Alejandro Jiménez, Agustí Pérez Foguet

Abstract In recent decades, many changes have occurred in the approach to financing and operating water services in developing countries. The demand‐responsive approach is now adopted in many countries in a context of donor‐supported decentralization processes, which gives more responsibility to end users. However, the government's responsibility at different levels is enforced by the international recognition of the human right to water. This paper examines specific actions that build the role of local government authorities in this scenario. A collaboration between an international NGO and a rural district in Tanzania from 2006 to 2009 is used as an action research case study that is representative of local capacity‐building needs in decentralized contexts and rural areas. Three main challenges were detected: i) lack of reliable information; ii) poor allocation of resources in terms of equity; and iii) lack of long‐term community management support from the district. Two mechanisms were established: i) water point mapping as a tool for information and planning; and ii) a District Water and Sanitation Unit Support (DWUS) for community management. The results show how the framework provided by the goal of human right to water helps to define useful strategies for equity‐oriented planning and post‐project support at the local level.

Mahjabeen Haji, Varatharajan Durairaj, Pascal Zurn, Laura Stormont · 5 authors

Decentralization involves the dispersion of power, functions and finances from a central authority to regional and local authorities. Decentralization reforms have become widespread in low- and middle-income countries, mainly due to movements towards democratiza-tion, the spread of multi-party electoral systems and transitions towards market economies. In particular, decentraliza-tion of financing systems, particularly for health, is now a common aspect of reform in these countries. The main advantage is the dynamism it can bring into the resource allocation mechanism; it also can facilitate re-allocation of funds through a visible, vibrant and bottom-up approach.

Akanksha Chaurey, Tara C. Kandpal

No abstract is available for this record.

Claudio Maccone

No abstract is available for this record.