High-frequency crypto forecasting requires systems that are accurate, explainable, and designed for human decision-making. Bitcoin presents a unique challenge for Human-Centred AI (HCAI) due to its volatility and sensitivity to heterogeneous technical, fundamental, and sentiment signals. This paper presents an explainable multimodal framework for Bitcoin forecasting at 15-minute resolution. We align five modalities—market data, on-chain metrics, the Fear & Greed Index (FGI), news, and Reddit—onto a unified, leakage-safe 15-minute grid. We evaluate tree-based, sequential, and Multimodal Fusion Block (MFB) models for next-interval log-return prediction using chronological splits. Results show that while short-horizon prediction remains challenging, multimodal features consistently improve over structured baselines, particularly during event-driven periods. To ensure transparency, the framework integrates a dual-layer explanation system: SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) attributions combined with large language model (LLM) narratives, ensuring outputs are both technically faithful and human-accessible. This work unlocks the “black box” of complex predictive architectures, transforming opaque multimodal signals into transparent, actionable decision support for high-frequency trading.
Confronted with the challenges of rapid urbanization and environmental pressures, this thesis addresses the critical limitations of current digital-twin platforms in integrating heterogeneous data streams—from air/water quality sensors to healthcare and infrastructure—into a unified, actionable model for smart cities. We propose and validate a trustworthy digital twin monitoring system, built upon a foundational framework of semantic data models and ontologies that enable data fusion, provenance tracking, and ML-driven decision support. This framework is extended by two core mechanisms: (i) .soda, a self-sovereign data attestation protocol using zero-knowledge proofs to ensure verifiable authenticity, and (ii) G-TOK, a privacy-preserving proof framework for sensor verification and multi-agent trust consensus. Together, they form a Mechanism and Verification Layer guaranteeing data integrity and fault-tolerant control. The architecture integrates adaptive time-series ML pipelines for predictive analytics, a semantic data model based on knowledge graphs, and a game-theoretic fusion algorithm with Byzantine fault tolerance.Evaluated through smart-city pilot studies in river-water monitoring, the system demonstrates enhanced fault tolerance, adaptive data compensation, and resilient consensus under the Trustworthy Game-Theoretic Framework (TGTF). This end-to-end methodology spans data aggregation/fusion, semantic data supply chains, AI agents, and the TGTF tailored for low-cost networks. The TGTF implements a closed-loop process of anomaly detection, error identification, and data compensation, boosting reliability while cutting costs. Furthermore, we introduce a trustworthy data model that aggregates analytical signals to assess environmental impact and integrates generative AI into cognitive digital twins to autonomously generate data supply chains, pioneering continuous parallel intelligence. This interdisciplinary work establishes the methodological and engineering foundations for Trustworthy Digital Twins (TDTs), offering a scalable, secure, and predictive solution for environmental and public-health monitoring. It paves the way for reproducible, scalable, and actionable urban intelligence, with future work aimed at coordinating multiple AI agents to strengthen urban resilience.
Pavel Kraynyukov, V. Tolstosheev, Р Н Гузеев, R LEMESHKIN
The article continues analyzing of the problem of provision of medical assistance to forced migrants, which began in the issue No.6, 2025 and presents a conceptual model of the use of distributed ledger technology (blockchain) for creation of a decentralized secured and interoperable system for the management of medical data.
Current electronic voting infrastructure continues to be plagued by security, transparency and voter privacy concerns, in both large and remote elections. In order to cope with these issues, this paper introduces a blockchain-based voting system which fulfills end-to-end verifiability and maintains ballot secrecy. The system proposed uses a permissioned blockchain system along with Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) consensus protocol to guarantee data integrity and resilience to faults when facing partially adversarial conditions. The combination of homomorphic encryption of tallying encrypted votes and zero-knowledge proofs of voter eligibility and validation of ballots, without disclosing the content of the vote, results in vote confidentiality and auditability. Smart contracts facilitate the process of vote validation and aggregation making it publically auditable without trusting third parties. Simulated workload performance evaluation suggests that, under regular operating conditions, the system has a verification accuracy greater than 98 % and has an average processing time and computational overhead that are lower than those of the corresponding blockchain-based voting systems under realistic operating conditions. The given framework is planned to assist with the real-time auditing and ensure privacy assurances. Besides this, the paper also addresses the practicability of post-quantum cryptographic primitives and cross-chain mechanisms as further improvements to ensure enhancement of long-term security and scalability.
The increasing complexity of international trade agreements and cross-border transactions necessitates efficient, transparent, and enforceable dispute resolution mechanisms. Traditional methods of conflict solving like litigation and arbitration bear many drawbacks including time-consuming, high costs and jurisdiction issues. As a result, blockchain technology has become the element that enhances the mechanisms for the effective implementation of international trade law instruments on smart contracts and decentralized dispute resolution (DDR) platforms. Due to the primary property of blockchain, by forming smart contracts, it is possible to reduce contradictions that may arise from contractual uncertainty, delay in enforcement, and breaches. The immutability of the record storage in the blocks facilitates the discouragement of contract breaches and the enhancement of the performance reviews instead of legal remand. In addition, blockchain removes the intermediaries thus offers reduce on legal expenses and enhance access specifically to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) who engage in international business. This paper aims at exploring the use of blockchain based smart contracts in the resolution of dispute as well as minimizing conflicts and improving legal certainty in international business.
The Ambazonian conflict in Cameroon’s Anglophone regions has unfolded within an era defined by mobile connectivity, social media, and digitally mediated political contention. This article examines the role of mobile technology in shaping the conflict’s trajectory from early mobilization to prolonged armed stalemate. It argues that mobile technology functioned as both an enabling and destabilizing force: facilitating mass mobilization, diaspora coordination, documentation of abuses, and digital finance, while simultaneously accelerating fragmentation, disinformation, cybersecurity exposure, and state surveillance. Drawing on comparative cases including the Arab Spring, ISIS, Ukraine, Ethiopia, and Myanmar, the article situates Ambazonia within broader patterns of digital contention and digital authoritarian response. The analysis further demonstrates how ungoverned digital visibility and decentralized online fundraising undermined strategic coherence and legitimacy. The article concludes that while mobile technology can amplify resistance, it cannot substitute for political legitimacy, institutional coherence, or negotiated settlement. Durable peace requires a transition from networked resistance to normatively grounded frameworks such as the Alliance for Peace and Justice (APJ) Peace Plan.
The immense Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) landscapes, such as Aadhaar, Digi Locker, and UPI, built by India’s rapid digitization, promote large-scale Identity, document, and finance services. However, centralised identity systems are very risky, such as a single point of failure, privacy violations, identity theft, lack of user control over their personal data. This increasing reliance on centralised frameworks underlines an acute need for more secure, private, and citizens-centric identity solutions. This research introduces a decentralized identity model that is based on both the principles of blockchain and the Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI). In the proposed system, the individuals are in control of their credentials since they use secure digital wallets to employ these credentials, while verifiable credentials are stored in an immutable blockchain network. The system relies on public-key cryptography, zero-knowledge proofs, and decentralized identifiers (DIDs) in authenticating users without revealing sensitive personal details. A layered architecture is proposed and connected to the existing government DPI platform by way of a permissioned blockchain network to support a scalable and aligned system with the decentralized identity model. Simulation parameters involved are transaction throughput, latency, resistance, and privacy leakage metrics under changing network conditions, as well as identity usage volumes. The presented algorithms for registration, verification, and identity revocation are robust, efficient, and immune to tampering of data or spoofing an identity. Simulation results validate enhanced security, privacy, scalability, and user empowerment compared to the traditional centralized systems. The bottom line is that the decentralized identity framework is not only capable of strengthening India’s DPI from cyber threats, systemic weaknesses but also guarantees that of an inclusive, user-controlled, and future-ready digital identity management system for more than a billion citizens amidst an ever-expanding digital ecosystem.
This study examines the dynamic, asymmetric, and regime-dependent interactions between green cryptocurrencies and ESG indices under external uncertainty. Using an integrated framework combining Time-Varying Parameter Vector Autoregression (TVP-VAR), Multivariate Quantile-on-Quantile Regression (M-QQR), Markov-Switching models, and Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS), we show that ESG–crypto co-movements are highly conditional. Connectedness intensifies during periods of elevated market volatility, while remaining weaker in tranquil regimes. Financial uncertainty, proxied by the VIX, consistently amplifies ESG–crypto linkages, whereas geopolitical risk (GPR) exerts weaker and more heterogeneous effects. Green cryptocurrencies (ADA, XLM, XNO, XRP, and IOTA) exhibit limited static integration with ESG indices but display strong procyclical alignment in lower return quantiles, challenging their safe-haven role during systemic stress. Regime-switching and 2SLS results confirm robustness and rule out endogeneity. These findings offer important implications for ESG-oriented investors, policymakers, and risk managers integrating digital assets into sustainable portfolios.
ABSTRACT This paper investigates how nonverbal elements of central bank communication—specifically, the vocal tone of Federal Reserve (Fed) Chairs during Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) press conferences—shape cryptocurrency market behavior across different phases of the business cycle. Using vocal tone measures extracted from speech audio and controlling for the Fed's textual sentiment and policy actions, we find that tone conveys information beyond what is contained in the Chair's words. A more positive vocal tone raises cryptocurrency prices during economic expansions but has the opposite effect during contractions. These asymmetric responses suggest that, in stable economic conditions, an optimistic tone strengthens investor confidence and encourages greater risk‐taking, whereas during downturns, heightened uncertainty and risk aversion dominate, leading market participants to shift away from speculative assets such as cryptocurrencies. Overall, our findings reveal that nonverbal communication functions as a meaningful and state‐dependent channel through which monetary policy affects the cryptocurrency market.
Jay Daniel, Elias Abou Maroun, Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes, Asmae El Jaouhari · 5 authors
Purpose Blockchain serves as a vital technology for digital transformation within manufacturing supply chains through its improved security and transparent tracking capabilities. Blockchain technology emerges as a promising solution for supply chain stakeholders who face ongoing information asymmetries and trust deficits amidst growing demands for sustainable practices and ethical sourcing from consumers and regulators. This paper aims to explore the potential of blockchain technology to improve transparency within supply chain operations, particularly in the Australian electrical manufacturing industry. Design/methodology/approach This research uses a multimethod research design encompassing three phases: Phase 1, a comprehensive literature review; Phase 2, semistructured interviews; and Phase 3, a case study to explore the application of distributed ledger technology for secure real-time supply chain activity monitoring. Findings The results suggest that integrating blockchain with Internet of Things technologies and sensor-based data leads to substantial improvements in data integrity while reducing fraud risks and enabling more efficient supply chain actor collaboration. Practical implications Manufacturing firms can benefit from our research findings, which provide actionable steps for using blockchain to achieve sustainable operations and improved efficiency. The authors offer strategic guidance for firms to develop supply chains that ensure transparency and resilience, along with alignment to environmental, social and governance goals. Originality/value The study advances digital supply chain transformation research by showing how blockchain serves as an essential technology to improve transparency and trust while boosting performance in manufacturing supply chains.
R. Kaladevi, V. UmaRani, Modafar Ati, Shanmugasundaram Hariharan · 6 authors
Crowdfunding is a revolutionary finance business model and creative initiative in fundraising, but traditional finance models are facing problems such as high intermediary costs, insecurity, lack of transparency, and mishandling of money. This research paper proposes a decentralized crowdfunding mechanism based on blockchain technology, which ensures the fundraising process with automation, trust, and transparency. The self-triggered Ethereum smart contracts written in Solidity object-oriented programming language are used to develop the crowdfunding system, which is deployed and tested in the Remix IDE environment. Remix is linked to the Ganache local blockchain for checking fund transfers. This process automates the main crowdfunding operations like goal verification, fund collection, withdrawal, and donor refunds. The smart contract eliminates the need for middlemen in the centralized system. Also, each transaction is permanently available on the blockchain, guaranteeing traceability, auditability, and guarding against financial fraud via immutability. The results show that a decentralized crowdfunding mechanism with cheap operating costs, transparent execution, and safe fund transfers is feasible. The potential use of decentralized crowdfunding to improve stakeholder trust and operational effectiveness in digital fundraising ecosystems is exhibited in this work. Future research can expand this architecture to public testnets and incorporate sophisticated features like decentralized identity verification and token-based rewards.
This paper introduces a cybersecurity framework that combines a deception-based ransomware detection system, called the Intrusion and Ransomware Detection System for Cloud (IRDS4C), with a blockchain-enabled Cyber Threat Intelligence platform (CTIB). The framework aims to improve the detection, reporting, and sharing of ransomware threats in cloud environments. IRDS4C uses deception techniques such as honeypots, honeytokens, pretender network paths, and decoy applications to identify ransomware behavior within cloud systems. Tests on 53 Windows-based ransomware samples from seven families showed an ordinary detection time of about 12 s, often quicker than tralatitious methods like file hashing or entropy analysis. These detection results are currently limited to Windows-based ransomware environments, and do not yet cover Linux, containerized, or hypervisor-level ransomware. Detected threats are formatted using STIX/TAXII standards and firmly shared through CTIB. CTIB applies a hybrid blockchain consensus of Proof of Stake (PoS) and Proof of Work (PoW) to ensure data integrity and protection from tampering. Security analysis shows that an attacker would need to control over 71% of the network to compromise the system. CTIB also improves trust, accuracy, and participation in intelligence sharing, while smart contracts control access to erogenous data. In a local prototype deployment (Hardhat devnet + FastAPI/Uvicorn), CTIB achieved 74.93–125.92 CTI submissions/min, The number of attempts or requests in each test was 100 with median end-to-end latency 455.55–724.99 ms (p95: 577.68–1364.17 ms) across PoW difficulty profiles (difficulty_bits = 8–16).
본 논문은 장애, 공격, 검열, 네트워크 분할과 같은 "중단 사건" 이후 분산 원장 및 합의 시스템이 어떻게 재수렴하는지 분석하기 위한 개념적 프레임워크로 흐름 복원력(Flow-Resilience )을 제안합니다 . "칼로 물을 베어도 물은 계속 흐른다"는 고전 속담에 기반하여, 본 논문은 속담과 프로토콜 간의 매핑 템플릿과 흐름→축소→분할→재흐름 단계 모델을 제시하고, 나카모토식 합의, 팍소스 계열 합의, BFT 복제 방식 간의 재수렴 경로를 비교합니다. 단, 구현상의 민감한 세부 정보는 공개하지 않습니다. License and Usage Notice Proprietary — All Rights Reserved This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). To view a copy of this license, visit: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Key Constraints: Attribution: You must give appropriate credit to the author (Jeongchoon Lee). Non-Commercial: You may not use this material for commercial purposes (including corporate-funded research or patent filings by third parties). NoDerivatives (No-Derivs): If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material. The production of derivative works—including academic papers that hybridize this theory with other frameworks—is strictly prohibited without the express written consent of the author.
Zhichao Wang, Xudong Zhu, Xinxuan Zhang, Yi Deng · 5 authors
Abstract Time-release cryptography is a flourishing research area with a long history and has been extensively studied. In this work, we enrich it by introducing a novel concept: a time-release zero-knowledge proof (TRZKP). A TRZKP is a non-interactive zero-knowledge proof that allows one to publish a proof for a given relation $$R_\mathcal {L}$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi> <mml:mi>L</mml:mi> </mml:msub> </mml:math> , such that anyone can only finish the verification after time $$\textbf{T}$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mi>T</mml:mi> </mml:math> by performing a sequential computation. This work formalizes the concept of TRZKP and presents light constructions for the time-release version of any NIZK obtained from a public-coin protocol via Fiat-Shamir transformation. TRZKPs can be applied to provide time-release authentication, for example, they can be employed to construct verifiable timed signatures (VTS), introduced by Thyagarajan et al. (CCS’20). Through both theoretical and practical analysis, our construction has advantages over existing VTS for Fiat-Shamir signatures. Specifically, when instantiated with Shnorr signature, our VTS signing time remains basically unchanged as the delay time grows, and is preferable for longer delay times; our VTS verification time is significantly small (on the level of milliseconds, while existing works on the level of seconds), and our VTS size is 67 times smaller than the state-of-the-art. It also has the time-verifiability property, which ensures the signature is recoverable after the specified time.
Perkembangan teknologi digital telah membawa perubahan signifikan dalam praktik pernikahan, termasuk munculnya fenomena penggunaan Non-Fungible Token akan selanjutnya di singkat NFT sebagai mahar. Indonesia sebagai negara dengan 2,1 juta pengguna NFT menghadapi tantangan hukum dalam mengakomodasi inovasi ini. Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis kedudukan mahar dalam hukum Islam dan Kompilasi Hukum Islam (KHI), serta keabsahan penggunaan NFT sebagai mahar pernikahan di Indonesia. Penelitian menggunakan metode yuridis normatif dengan pendekatan perundang-undangan, konseptual, dan perbandingan pandangan empat mazhab. Data sekunder dikumpulkan melalui studi pustaka terhadap Al-Qur'an, hadis, KHI, UU Perkawinan, dan literatur fiqih kontemporer. Analisis dilakukan menggunakan enam asas hukum: kerelaan dan kesepakatan (taradhin), kemanfaatan (maslahah), kepastian hukum, perlindungan hukum, keadilan ('adalah), dan legalitas. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahar merupakan kewajiban fundamental berdasarkan QS. An-Nisa ayat 4 dan diatur dalam Pasal 30-38 KHI. NFT dapat diterima sebagai mahar sah secara kondisional dengan syarat ketat: konten halal sesuai syariah, diperoleh melalui cara sah, ada informed consent dari kedua pihak yang memahami karakteristik NFT, memiliki nilai ekonomis terukur, serta terhindar dari gharar fahisy dan maysir. Implementasinya memerlukan pendekatan hybrid (50-70% mahar konvensional) untuk melindungi hak istri mengingat volatilitas nilai NFT yang mencapai 45-70% dalam 6 bulan. Penelitian merekomendasikan pengembangan regulasi komprehensif dari Kementerian Agama dan MUI untuk memberikan kepastian hukum. Kata Kunci: Mahar Pernikahan, Non-Fungible Token (NFT), Kompilasi Hukum Islam, Aset Digital. The development of digital technology has brought significant changes to marriage practices, including the emergence of the phenomenon of using Non-Fungible Tokens, hereinafter referred to as NFTs, as dowries. Indonesia, as a country with 2.1 million NFT users, faces legal challenges in accommodating this innovation. This study aims to analyze the position of dowry in Islamic law and the Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI), as well as the validity of using NFTs as marriage dowries in Indonesia. The research uses a normative juridical method with a legislative, conceptual, and comparative approach to the views of the four madhhabs. Secondary data was collected through a literature study of the Qur'an, hadith, KHI, Marriage Law, and contemporary fiqh literature. The analysis was conducted using six legal principles: willingness and agreement (taradhin), benefit (maslahah), legal certainty, legal protection, justice ('adalah), and legality. The results of the study show that dowry is a fundamental obligation based on QS. An-Nisa verse 4 and is regulated in Articles 30-38 of the KHI. NFTs can be accepted as valid dowries conditionally with strict requirements: halal content in accordance with sharia, obtained through lawful means, informed consent from both parties who understand the characteristics of NFTs, measurable economic value, and free from gharar fahisy and maysir. Its implementation requires a hybrid approach (50-70% conventional dowry) to protect the rights of wives given the volatility of NFT values, which can reach. Keywords: Wedding Mahr, Non-Fungible Token (NFT), Islamic Law Compilation, Digital Assets.
La tesi analizza in modo sistematico la fiscalità dei Non-Fungible Token (NFT), affrontandone la natura giuridica e le implicazioni tributarie dirette e indirette, nel contesto del diritto italiano, europeo e internazionale. Gli NFT, certificati digitali unici basati su tecnologia blockchain, pongono questioni di qualificazione che incidono sui principi costituzionali di legalità e capacità contributiva. L’assenza di una disciplina normativa espressa ha generato incertezze applicative e un ricorso eccessivo a interpretazioni analogiche, con il rischio di violare la riserva di legge in materia fiscale. La ricerca propone un inquadramento organico degli NFT, fondato sul principio di prevalenza della sostanza sulla forma, valorizzando la funzione economico-giuridica del token. Dopo aver esaminato la disciplina dell’imposizione diretta e indiretta, la fiscalità dei marketplace e i profili comparati (OCSE, MiCA, DAC8, CARF), la tesi giunge a sostenere la necessità di un intervento legislativo che distingua gli NFT dalle criptovalute, introducendo una normativa specifica capace di garantire certezza del diritto, neutralità fiscale e coerenza sistematica nell’era digitale.
Abstract Automatic trading systems cope with the needs of put out emotional biases from the trading operation of public assets. These systems place orders based on a price model that forecasts the future price of an asset. Those systems, developed by edge funds and institutional investors, are not available to the public, and extensive research in this field is worth the effort. In this research, we developed a short-term price model based on a neural network and used it to forecast the near-future price direction. More in depth, we introduced the feature extraction process and parametric labeling strategy to build an ML ready dataset that includes more than 400 cryptocurrencies. The model is then validated by building a trading strategy on the two most capitalized cryptos at the time of writing: Bitcoin and Ethereum. The validation uses a trading simulation that spans six years of historical data for Bitcoin and Ethereum, including both retrospective (backtest) and prospective (forward test) evaluations. The results demonstrate that the neural network-based model exhibits a very good generalization to patterns found in historical data, enabling predictions in future data within the trading simulation. In addition, a comprehensive analysis of the importance of features was conducted to enhance the interpretability and performance of the model. Finally, we test our model in a simulated trading session; it shows that, with a simple buy-only strategy plus a stop loss, the trading system limits the draw dawn during bear markets.
Smart contracts are tools with self-execution capabilities that provide enhanced security compared to traditional contracts; however, their immutability makes post-deployment fault correction extremely complex, highlighting the need for a verification layer prior to this stage. Although formalisms such as Contract Language (CL) enable logical analyses, they prove limited in attributing responsibilities within complex multilateral scenarios. This work presents a proof of concept using the Relativized Contract Language (RCL) and the RECALL tool for the specification and verification of a purchase and sale contract involving multiple agents. The study demonstrates the tool's capability to detect normative conflicts during the modeling phase. After correcting logical inconsistencies, the contract was translated into Solidity and functionally validated within the Remix IDE environment, confirming that prior formal verification is fundamental to ensuring the reliability and security of the final code.
Traditional paper-based document management has long posed challenges related to security, authenticity, and efficiency. Despite advances in digitalization, official documents remain vulnerable to forgery, loss, and unauthorized access. This thesis proposes a decentralized infrastructure for digital notarization, signing, and sharing of documents using blockchain technology. The research addresses key issues of transparency, immutability, and feasibility by defining system requirements, evaluating existing solutions, and proposing a novel architecture based on distributed systems. By combining cryptographic techniques with decentralized storage, this research contributes to the development of a more secure and efficient framework for managing official documents. The findings highlight the potential of blockchain-based digital notarization to streamline bureaucratic processes, mitigate security risks, and enhance user trust in digital document management.
Awid Vaziry, Sandro Rodriguez Garzon, Christoph Wronka, Axel Küpper
Public blockchains provide no native mechanism to verify the legal identity behind a deployed smart contract, which blocks institutional adoption and compliance with EU regulations such as MiCA and AMLR. We present KYC Seal, the first protocol that extends the EU eIDAS trust infrastructure to Ethereum smart contracts by cryptographically binding them to Qualified Electronic Seals issued by Qualified Trust Service Providers (QTSPs). The protocol realizes the full eIDAS trust chain, from the European Commission's List of Trusted Lists through Member-State trusted lists and QTSP-signed X.509 certificates down to the individual smart contract, natively on-chain. An on-chain parser extracts identity fields directly from the QTSP-signed certificate bytes at registration. Both cryptographic verifications, the QTSP issuance signature and the certificate holder's seal signature, are performed once at registration and cached as on-chain state, reducing per-interaction seal verification to a pure state check. A new P-256 elliptic-curve precompile in Ethereum (deployed December 2025) makes these one-time cryptographic steps economical, enabling trustless on-chain verification of eIDAS identities without oracles or runtime intermediaries. A reference implementation, a formal security analysis, and a gas evaluation are the subject of forthcoming work.
Carbon credit systems have emerged as a policy tool to incentivize emission reductions and support the transition to clean energy. Reliable carbon-credit certification depends on mechanisms that connect actual, measured renewable-energy production to verifiable emission-reduction records. Although blockchain and IoT technologies have been applied to emission monitoring and trading, existing work offers limited support for certification processes, particularly for small and medium-scale renewable installations. This paper introduces a blockchain-based carbon-credit certification architecture, demonstrated through a 100 kWp photovoltaic case study, that integrates real-time IoT data collection, edge-level aggregation, and secure on-chain storage on a permissioned blockchain with smart contracts. Unlike approaches focused on trading mechanisms, the proposed system aligns with European legislation and voluntary carbon-market standards, clarifying the practical requirements and constraints that apply to photovoltaic operators. The resulting architecture provides a structured pathway for generating verifiable carbon-credit records and supporting third-party verification.