Blockchain Papers

Yanxun Gu, Kun Yang, Jian Cao, Mingqian Feng

The accurate quantification of grid carbon emission factors (CEFs) is foundational for robust carbon accounting, effective climate policy, and credible corporate sustainability reporting. Traditional national-average CEFs are fundamentally inadequate, perpetuating the “copper plate” fallacy by ignoring profound spatial and temporal heterogeneity within interconnected power systems. This review critically evaluates the emerging paradigm of “grid hierarchical and zonal division” as a necessary response to this challenge. We systematically analyze the limitations of existing methodologies, highlighting the significant gap between top-down administrative calculations and bottom-up physical flow tracing. As our central contribution, we propose an integrated three-layer framework that synthesizes established but previously siloed concepts, physical flow modeling, policy boundary definition, and data architecture, into a unified structure. The novelty lies in their explicit integration and the modeling of interdependencies across layers: a Physical Flow Layer (‘engine’), a Policy Boundary Layer (‘rulebook’), and a Data and Calculation Layer (‘nervous system’). Our comparative analysis demonstrates that no single methodology is universally superior; a strategic, hybrid application across the hierarchy is essential. A structured case-based analysis applying the framework to China’s West-East Electricity Transfer corridor demonstrates its practical utility, with illustrative estimates from published comparative analyses suggesting that different accounting choices for cross-border electricity can result in differences of 15%–30% in an importing region’s reported Scope 2 emissions. The review identifies critical challenges data transparency, treatment of electricity imports, and lack of standardization, and proposes actionable pathways. Future research frontiers include dynamic real-time CEFs, artificial intelligence for forecasting and zoning, and blockchain for data integrity. This framework provides an essential blueprint for next-generation grid CEFs indispensable for guiding a precise and efficient energy transition.

John Alexander Taborda, Cesar Enrique Polo Castro, Miguel Martínez

Just energy transitions in the Global South unfold under conditions of institutional fragmentation, fiscal constraints, and high socio-ecological turbulence, making governance capacity a critical bottleneck for effective decarbonization and climate justice. This study proposes the Cybernetic Environmental Hub (CEH) framework, which extends the Viable System Model (VSM) to sustainability governance by integrating AIoT-enabled environmental monitoring, Early Warning Systems, decentralized data governance, and justice-centered institutional design. Methodologically, the article is primarily a conceptual framework paper accompanied by an illustrative single-site qualitative case study designed to probe the plausibility and diagnostic utility of the proposed architecture rather than to generate statistical generalization. The research combines theoretical development with participatory territorial diagnostics in the Caribbean Mining Corridor, where socio-ecological challenges were collected through participatory innovation workshops, thematically coded, and mapped onto the five VSM subsystems to identify systemic “variety gaps.” The analysis indicates that fragmented operational initiatives coexist with weak meta-systemic coordination, limiting adaptive capacity in energy transition processes. The CEH architecture is proposed to address these deficiencies by embedding AIoT sensing, federated learning, blockchain-based coordination, and Early Warning Systems within recursive governance structures and is grounded in a real cyber-physical deployment of around 90 monitoring stations across Albania, La Jagua de Ibirico and Algarrobo. The study also introduces a Territorial Governance Maturity Model (H1–H3) to diagnose systemic learning capacities and transition readiness across technological, institutional, data governance, and justice dimensions. The findings suggest that cybernetic environmental hubs may function as socio-technical infrastructures supporting coordinated, adaptive, and justice-centered energy transitions in the Global South, while comparative empirical evidence remains an agenda for future work.

Mario Mihetec, Goran Stunjek, Goran Krajačić, Gordana Mikulčić Krnjaja

ABSTRACT Suburban areas with dispersed buildings and low heat flux densities present distinct challenges for the decarbonization of heating systems. While district heating is often promoted in dense urban cores, its economic viability in suburban zones remains questionable due to high network costs and thermal losses. This study investigates whether decentralized, household level solutions combining high-temperature air source heat pumps with photovoltaics can outperform centralized district heating in such contexts. Using a case study of four peripheral settlements in Croatia, the research employs a dual-scale techno-economic optimization framework: a mixed-integer linear programming model for district heating and a prosumer-level model for individual heat pump-photovoltaic–battery systems. Three building renovation scenarios (no, partial, and full renovation) are evaluated alongside a mixed-financing scheme involving grants, household equity, and energy service company participation. Results show that decentralized heat pump-photovoltaic–battery systems under full renovation deliver the highest energy savings (75% reduction in household energy costs), the greatest carbon dioxide reduction (2,207 tonnes annually), with a net present value of 1.49 million EUR and an internal rate of return of 7.21%. When external costs of air pollution and carbon are internalized, the economic net present value rises to 68.39 million EUR. The results suggest that, under the assumptions and boundary conditions defined in this study, decentralized renewable heating systems are both technically viable and economically favorable compared to district heating in low-heat-density suburban contexts. This work provides a replicable decision-support framework for policymakers and planners seeking to accelerate the clean heating transition in dispersed residential areas.

Joseph malisaba, Barah Obinna Onyebuchi, Samuel George Onep, Emmanuel Ninsiima

<ns5:p> Background Access to safe drinking water remains a persistent challenge in low-resource settings such as Ishaka Municipality, Uganda, where surface and groundwater sources are frequently contaminated and access to reliable electricity is limited. This study presents the design, modeling, and performance evaluation of a solar-powered hybrid water treatment system integrated with a biosensor-based microbial detection unit, enabling autonomous operation and real-time water quality monitoring for decentralized applications. Methods A total of 384 water samples were collected from springs, wetlands, wells, and tap sources and analyzed for key physicochemical and microbial parameters, including turbidity, pH, and indicator organisms. The proposed system integrates sedimentation, activated carbon filtration, reverse osmosis, and solar thermal disinfection to achieve multi-barrier treatment. Hydraulic and filtration performance were modeled using fluid flow and porous media principles, while microbial inactivation was described using first-order kinetic models. The photovoltaic subsystem was evaluated through detailed loss modeling, incorporating temperature effects, partial shading, and inverter inefficiencies to assess overall system reliability. Results Baseline results indicated significant contamination, with <ns5:italic>Escherichia coli</ns5:italic> concentrations reaching 210 CFU/100 mL and turbidity values up to 146 NTU. The hybrid system achieved over 95% removal of contaminants, complete elimination of <ns5:italic>E. coli</ns5:italic> , and compliance with World Health Organization drinking water standards. Solar thermal disinfection provided a 4–6 log reduction in microbial indicators. The integrated biosensor demonstrated rapid response times (45–90 seconds) and strong correlation with laboratory biochemical oxygen demand measurements (R <ns5:sup>2</ns5:sup> = 0.89–0.94). The photovoltaic subsystem maintained a performance ratio of 0.84–0.88, consistently meeting 100% of operational energy demand under varying environmental conditions. Conclusion These results demonstrate that the proposed system provides an effective, energy-autonomous solution for decentralized water purification with real-time monitoring capability, offering significant potential for improving access to safe drinking water in rural and resource-limited environments. </ns5:p>

Arzu Alvan, Sina Kısacık, Nalan Gelirli

Renewables have moved from the sidelines to the center of policy and investment. Evidence from IEA, IRENA, REN21, and recent studies shows steep cost drops in solar and wind, record capacity growth, and more jobs. Environmental gains (lower GHGs, cleaner air and water, smarter land use) come with economic and social upsides (jobs, energy security, rural access via decentralized systems). But real constraints persist: grid congestion, curtailment, flexibility gaps; high financing costs and regulatory uncertainty in emerging markets; supply chain risks; and community concerns over siting and land rights. The challenge has shifted from tech costs to system integration and governance—durable policies, markets that value flexibility, quicker permitting, and just transition tools. Priorities ahead: operating high VRE under extremes, long-duration storage and sector coupling (hydrogen, heat, industry), critical minerals and circularity, resilience to climate and cyber risks, and effective de-risking in the Global South.

Henrietta Ighomrore

Clean energy transitions increasingly depend on the ability of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to access capital on terms that allow them to compete with large, vertically integrated incumbents. At a macro level, clean energy finance has evolved from subsidy-heavy public funding toward blended models combining private capital, risk-sharing instruments, and performance-based incentives. These structures aim to lower the cost of capital, correct market failures, and accelerate diffusion of renewable technologies across national energy systems. However, capital markets continue to privilege scale, balance-sheet strength, and long operating histories, creating persistent financing asymmetries that disadvantage smaller firms. This study situates clean energy financing within broader frameworks of financial inclusion, industrial competitiveness, and energy market liberalization. It examines how innovative financing architectures such as blended finance vehicles, green credit guarantees, pay-as-you-save schemes, revenue-backed project finance, and aggregated procurement platforms reshape risk allocation and margin dynamics. By reducing upfront capital requirements, smoothing cash flows, and improving bankability, these models enable SMEs to price energy products and services competitively while maintaining sustainable margins. Narrowing to the national context, the analysis highlights how policy design, regulatory certainty, and domestic financial infrastructure determine whether financing innovations translate into real competitive parity. Case-informed synthesis shows that when concessional capital is strategically deployed to crowd in commercial lenders, small enterprises can achieve cost structures comparable to larger incumbents, expand market share, and drive decentralized energy adoption. The findings underscore that clean energy competition is not solely a technological challenge, but a financial architecture problem, where well-designed financing models are decisive in leveling margins and unlocking inclusive energy-led growth at national scale under diverse regulatory and macroeconomic conditions globally relevant insights.

Abulfathi Ibrahim Saleh Al-hussaini

Water scarcity represents one of the most critical challenges confronting arid and semi-arid regions, particularly under the intensifying pressures of climate change. In desert environments, limited freshwater availability constrains public health, food security, and socio-economic development, while traditional funding mechanisms often prove inadequate for scaling sustainable water infrastructure. This study examines the potential of decentralized finance (DeFi) bonds, combined with desalination and atmospheric water harvesting technologies, as an innovative financing and delivery model for enhancing water resilience in desert regions. The research adopts a qualitative, exploratory case study approach, drawing on a structured review of academic and policy literature, documented blockchain-based water initiatives, and a conceptual financial analysis of DeFi bond mechanisms. The OikosNomos.world (ONW) initiative is examined as the primary case study, with attention to its proposed deployment of solar-powered desalination systems, boreholes, and atmospheric water harvesting infrastructure. The analysis indicates that existing desalination and water harvesting technologies are technically viable in arid environments, particularly when integrated with renewable energy systems. Furthermore, blockchain-enabled DeFi bonds demonstrate potential to enhance transparency, automate fund allocation through smart contracts, and attract global impact-oriented capital beyond traditional grant-based models. However, the study also identifies key challenges, including regulatory uncertainty, governance complexity, infrastructure constraints, and the need for sustained community engagement. The paper concludes that while DeFi-financed water infrastructure is not a standalone solution to water scarcity, its strategic integration with proven water technologies and inclusive governance models offers a scalable and transparent pathway for strengthening desert resilience. Future empirical research and pilot deployments are required to validate financial performance, adoption outcomes, and long-term socio-environmental impacts.

C.A. Bindyashree, Chitra G., Syed Muzamil Basha, Hamed Taherdoost

In the present times, Transformation finance has become a prominent approach for a systematic financial channel to facilitate the step-by-step decarbonization of carbon-intensive sectors. Such mechanisms rely on the accuracy of carbon emissions data to measure environmental performance and to inform capital decisions. The current carbon accounting methods are limited by inadequate data-collection provisions, slow verification processes, and low auditability, which undermine the reliability of emission-reduction claims and constrain the effectiveness of carbon asset markets. In the present research work, a blockchain-based framework is proposed that will create reliable carbon data accounting and facilitate structured carbon asset circulation within ecosystems of transformation finance. The framework establishes a single carbon lifecycle for data, integrating real-time emission tracking, multi-step verification, a secure registry, and computer-generated assets. The datasets of industrial emissions used to test the operation of the proposed system under multi-sector conditions include energy systems and manufacturing activities, logistics networks, and urban service infrastructure. The objective of the proposed framework is to measure the reliability of carbon accounting by normalizing emission intensities, estimating verification confidence, and scoring trust with uncertainty. In addition, a circulation model is proposed to describe the liquidity of carbon assets, the efficiency of their utilization, and the stability of decentralized transactions. The outcome of the present research is to regulate the creation and transfer of tokenized carbon assets, which guarantees the consistency of environmental performance and financial representation. The review shows a quantifiable increase in the visibility of emission records, a decrease in verification delays, and greater visibility into asset circulation processes compared with traditional centralized systems. The suggested framework establishes a logical link between verifiable carbon-reduction results and decentralized financial mechanisms, enhancing the operational feasibility of transformation finance.

Christian Kaps, Serguei Netessine, Vishrut Rana, Ömer Karaduman

No abstract is available for this record.

Mahdi Pourgholi, Aslan Gholami

No abstract is available for this record.

Shuchi Tiwari, B. A. Botre, S. Sridhar, Caroliny M. Santos

No abstract is available for this record.

Phemelo Tamasiga, Valentine Munyaradzi Dzingai, Helen Onyeaka, Rose Daphnee Tchonkouang · 7 authors

• The global energy transition impacts food security in developing countries. Renewable energy improves agricultural productivity but creates trade-offs like land and water competition. • Agri-voltaic systems enhance crop yields and energy efficiency. They help balance food and energy production, reducing fossil fuel dependency. • Renewable energy projects can increase food prices in vulnerable regions. Financial incentives, social protection, education, and public-private partnerships to make renewable energy adoption more accessible and affordable for farmers. • Renewable energy can reduce agriculture’s operational costs but high initial investments limit smallholder farmers. The study recommends subsidies, training, and financial support to help farmers adopt renewable energy while ensuring food security is maintained. • There is an eminent need for an interdisciplinary approach to understanding energy transitions’ impacts on food security and long-term sustainability. Transitioning to net-zero societies affects how energy is produced and consumed, with consequences for food security. Through a systematic review of 43 peer-reviewed studies that follow the PRISMA protocol, results reveal that renewable energy can enhance agricultural productivity by reducing operational costs, increasing efficiency in irrigation and processing, and providing reliable access to energy. However, challenges exist, including competition for land and water resources between renewable energy projects and food production, high upfront costs of clean energy technologies, limited access to credit facilities, and institutional bottlenecks. To overcome these challenges, recommended policies include offering subsidies and financial incentives to make clean energy more affordable for farmers, as well as providing education and training to support the adoption of sustainable practices. Furthermore, promoting collaboration between the public and private sectors is crucial to stimulate investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Moreover, these policies must be designed for specific national circumstances. High-income or upper-middle-income countries can deploy capital-intensive agrivoltaic and biogas technologies via concessional finance. In contrast, low-income settings should prioritize low-cost, decentralized solar pumps and off-grid dryers to build farmer confidence and trust. Countries with stronger regulatory frameworks and secure land tenure systems are better equipped to support large-scale renewable energy projects. At the same time, regions with weaker governance tend to benefit most from community-owned mini-grids. The mapping of policy options onto economic, institutional, and agro-ecological dimensions provides a nuanced, context-sensitive framework to guide equitable and effective energy transitions in diverse agricultural landscapes.

Maryam Aliabadi, Nassim Tahouni, M. Hassan Panjeshahi

No abstract is available for this record.

Awad Duaibes

ABSTRACT Palestine's chronic energy insecurity, marked by high import dependency and structural fragmentation, poses major development challenges. In response, the Palestine Investment Fund (PIF) launched the Noor Palestine Solar Program, a public–private initiative aiming to install 200 Megawatts (MW) of solar capacity over 8 years, through utility parks and public‐school rooftops. This brief report draws on field‐based data to document the program's design, financing, and implementation. It highlights how the program mobilized concessional and private capital, navigated political and institutional constraints, and delivered measurable energy, fiscal, and educational outcomes. By late 2024, Noor had generated over 165 million kilowatt‐hours (kWh) of clean energy, saving nearly 70 million Israeli shekels (ILS) in imports. Key success factors included regulatory alignment, decentralized systems, blended finance, and flexible delivery. The program provides practical insights into how innovative energy infrastructure can be leveraged to strengthen service delivery and promote resilience and development in fragile settings.

Abdoul Wahab Nouhou Moussa, Adel Zrelli, Boukary Sawadogo, Rachida Chemini

Africa’s growing water stress and energy access challenges necessitate sustainable wastewater treatment solutions. This review critically examines three emerging approaches: solar-based, membrane-based, and hybrid solar-membrane systems, across the African continent. Solar technologies, including solar water disinfection, photocatalysis, and advanced oxidation processes, demonstrate significant potential in sun-rich regions, achieving more than 90% pathogen and contaminant removal in decentralized settings. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and advanced filtration systems show robust performance in industrial applications, with 95%–99% pollutant rejection, though their energy demands remain a significant constraint. Hybrid solar-membrane systems synergize these advantages, as evidenced by case studies in Kenya (solar-MBR for aquaculture, 40% energy autonomy) and Namibia (solar-powered desalination, 99.7% salt rejection). Despite technological promise, adoption barriers persist, including high capital costs, technical capacity gaps, and policy fragmentation. This review analyze 32 implementations across 17 African countries, evaluating performance metrics, scalability, and socioeconomic viability. Key findings highlight the cost-effectiveness and sustainability gains from waste-derived membranes (e.g., geopolymers, recycled plastics, oasis waste), nanoparticle-enhanced photocatalysts (TiO 2 /MnO 2 ), and modular system designs tailored to off-grid and resource-limited settings. The review concludes with policy recommendations to accelerate deployment. These include fostering decentralized systems in peri-urban and rural areas, promoting public-private partnerships to finance infrastructure, and supporting localized research to adapt technologies to diverse hydroclimatic and socio-economic conditions. Together, these approaches offer a viable pathway toward achieving SDG 6 and SDG 7 in Africa.

M. S. Khan, Akram A. Khan

This paper examines the role of advanced biofuels in promoting energy access and economic growth in rural areas, with a focus on developing countries. Advanced biofuels, produced from non-food biomass sources such as agricultural residues, algae, and waste, have the potential to reduce rural energy poverty while creating economic opportunities. Through case studies of successful initiatives in countries like India and Brazil, this study highlights how decentralized biofuel production has improved energy access, created local employment, and enhanced agricultural value chains. Notable findings include the establishment of community-led biofuel plants that reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels and generated sustainable incomes for farmers by utilizing crop residues. The study also identifies key challenges such as limited infrastructure, access to financing, and policy support, while offering actionable recommendations to scale advanced biofuel adoption. Overall, advanced biofuels present a promising pathway to sustainable rural development by enhancing energy security, reducing environmental impact, and fostering economic growth.

Meserecordias Wilfred Lema

This review paper aims to examine the key challenges associated with wastewater management in major cities of the East African region and explore the emerging opportunities for addressing this crisis. An extensive database search identified 100 peer-reviewed publications related to wastewater crisis in East Africa. The reviewed literature was analysed and synthesized to develop an understanding of the topic. The findings from this review have shown that less than 55% of the East African population (30% in Tanzania, 40% in Uganda, 50% in Kenya, 40% in Rwanda, 20% in Burundi, 30% in Ethiopia, 50% in Sudan, and 15% in Somalia) is connected to sewers systems. Additionally, the study has revealed the following issues as the main challenges facing wastewater management in East Africa; poor infrastructure, regulatory and institutional deficiencies, poor financing and cost recovery mechanism, and poor community participation and utility management, which in turn results to potential environmental and public health implications. This paper has also identified possible innovative strategies and emerging opportunities for sustainable wastewater management. These include; decentralized wastewater treatment systems, resource recovery and reuse, public–private partnerships, policy and governance reforms and the use of modern technologies such as membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and electrochemical treatment methods. In addition, the role of policy and governance reforms in enabling sustainable wastewater management in East Africa has also been emphasized, in this paper. The findings of this review emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive policies, investments, and collaborative efforts to address the wastewater crisis and harness the potential benefits of wastewater as a resource.

Pedro Baiz, Weilun Lao

The origin of carbon markets can be traced back since the early 1990’s with initiatives like the USA Clean Air Act and the Kyoto Protocol, and over these past three decades the ecosystem continues to evolve and grow to meet its ultimate goal of reducing carbon concentration in our planet. The present chapter aims to describe the latest developments across the ecosystem standards, especially developments involving the use of distributed ledger technologies.

Safitri, Icmi Alif, Sulaiman, Muhammad, Budiarto, Rachmawan

The development of micro-scale renewable energy power generation systems, such as micro-hydropower (MHP), often needs more consideration for sustainability during the planning stages. Many small-scale renewable energy systems have shorter-than-expected lifespans, jeopardizing Indonesia's Net Zero Emission Target for 2060 or earlier. Despite this, only some studies have examined the long-term viability of installed renewable energy generation projects, particularly MHP plants not managed by state-owned companies or PLN (Pembangkit Listrik Negara). The primary objectives of this research are to evaluate the feasibility of retrofitting and assess the potential sustainability of a decommissioned MHP in Banjarnegara, Central Java. A cash flow analysis was performed to assess techno-economic indicators. Additionally, the social-institutional dimension was analyzed through in-depth interviews with 15 stakeholders. Sustainability was evaluated using a framework of 15 indicators across technical, economic, environmental, social, and institutional dimensions. The findings revealed that among the four sustainability aspects, the social-institutional dimension scored the lowest potential sustainability at 26.67%. In contrast, the technical and environmental dimensions showed higher potential sustainability, scoring 83.7% and 87.5%, respectively. The economic dimension was deemed feasible only when the financing model accounted solely for retrofitting costs. It is crucial to consider all dimensions comprehensively. Furthermore, engaging multiple stakeholders and fostering local community awareness is vital to ensure the long-term sustainability of decentralized energy systems. This study enhances the understanding of the sustainability potential of abandoned decentralized energy systems and explores how reusing abandoned MHP facilities can support stakeholders in revitalization efforts, contributing to an increased share of renewable energy in the overall energy mix.

Halima Nihinlolawa Giwa, Habib Oluwasegun Giwa, Sunday Odey Alepu, Wang Zelong · 5 authors

Decentralized household wastewater treatment systems are gaining increasing attention as a sustainable alternative to centralized systems for managing household wastewater streams which includes the grey, black and storm water, particularly in developing countries and rural areas. Decentralized household wastewater treatment systems offer several advantages, including reduced infrastructure costs, lower environmental impact, improved local water quality, and increased adaptability to site-specific conditions. However, the widespread adoption and long-term sustainability of household wastewater treatment systems face various challenges. This review paper examines the key challenges and perspectives in the household wastewater streams. The main challenges identified include lack of awareness and education among stakeholders, institutional and regulatory barriers, financial constraints, limited technology options, and socio-cultural acceptance. The review also explores the perspectives for overcoming these challenges, such as enhancing education and awareness programs, developing standardized designs and guidelines, establishing sustainable financing mechanisms, and promoting sustainable and circular solutions, and appropriate technology development. By addressing these challenges and leveraging the opportunities, Decentralized household wastewater treatment systems can play a crucial role in improving sanitation, reducing environmental degradation, and supporting sustainable water management in diverse settings.

M. Tizzaoui, H. Soualmi, F. Mguellati

No abstract is available for this record.

Mohamd Laimon, Rula Almadadha

No abstract is available for this record.

Maria Pérez Rubí, Conrad Schiffmann, Jochen Hack

In Costa Rica, water supply networks provide water to over 94% of the country's population. However, only an estimated 14% of wastewater receives proper treatment. The lack of centralized sanitation infrastructure has resulted in the use of septic tanks and the discharge of untreated greywater into rivers, causing environmental degradation of surface waters. Retrofitting conventional centralized sewer networks and treatment plants into the existing urbanization presents extensive social, economic, and technical challenges. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for greywater treatment can reduce pollutant loads and improve the environmental status of water resources and represent an opportunity for technical leapfrogging towards sustainable, decentralized on-site treatment and reuse. However, the implementation of NbS in urban areas poses significant challenges due to the complex interplay of social, regulatory, and economic factors. Specifically, for on-site greywater treatment systems, meeting several criteria, including efficient pollutant removal, affordability, and public acceptance is essential for successful implementation and operation. This study assesses the technical, socio-economic, and political-regulatory dimensions relevant to implementing NbS for decentralized greywater treatment. To conduct this research, a Real-World Lab was established in the Great Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica, employing a transdisciplinary approach. This approach provided a physical space and societal context to integrate site-specific aspects and understand the various factors that influence the implementation and upscaling of NbS. As part of our methodology, we analyzed the water quality parameters and treatment performance of a NbS prototype for decentralized greywater treatment. Within the Real-World Lab framework, we conducted interviews, surveys, and field observations to investigate socio-economic and political-regulatory aspects. Our results highlight the technical potential of the NbS prototype. However, the limitation lies in the governance scheme and financing mechanisms required for upscaling the NbS as a decentralized on-site technology across the country. Our multidimensional assessment provides insights into the requirements for widespread implementation of NbS, applicable to other regions facing similar retrofitting sanitation challenges.

Mahdi Nakhaei, Amirhossein Ahmadi, Mohammad Gheibi, Benyamin Chahkandi · 6 authors

No abstract is available for this record.