Sergej GriÄar, Christian StipanoviÄ, Tea Baldigara
As climate change concerns, urban congestion, and environmental degradation intensify, cities prioritise cycling as a sustainable transport option to reduce CO2 emissions and improve quality of life. However, rampant bicycle theft and poor security infrastructure often deter daily commuters and tourists from cycling. This study explores how advanced security measures can bolster sustainable urban mobility and tourism by addressing these challenges. A mixed-methods approach is utilised, incorporating primary survey data from Slovenia and secondary data on bicycle sales, imports and thefts from 2015 to 2024. Findings indicate that access to secure parking substantially enhances usersâ sense of safety when commuting by bike. Regression analysis shows that for every 1000 additional bicycles sold, approximately 280 more thefts occurâequivalent to a 0.28 rise in reported theftsâhighlighting a systemic vulnerability associated with sustainability-oriented behaviour. To bridge this gap, the study advocates for an innovative security framework that combines blockchain technology and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) with encrypted Quick Response (QR) codes. Each bicycle would receive a tamper-proof QR code connected to a blockchain-verified NFT documenting ownership and usage data. This system facilitates real-time authentication, enhances traceability, deters theft, and builds trust in cycling as a dependable transport alternative. The proposed solution merges sustainable transport, digital identity, and urban security, presenting a scalable model for individual users and shared mobility systems.
Ensuring consistent progress toward citiesâ net-zero emission goals requires understanding key dimensions of urban climate governanceâparticularly the motivations driving municipalities toward net zero and the critical barriers and enablers along this pathway. Current knowledge on these critical aspects is fragmented, lacking a holistic framework and empirical prioritization of key factors. We developed an integrated analytical framework and empirically distilled the most salient motivations, barriers, and enablers through a large-scale survey targeting 489 net-zero-committed municipalitiesâknown as âZero Carbon Citiesââacross Japan. With responses from 309 municipalities, we deliver the first systematic mapping of factors perceived as most influential by Japanese local authorities. The results indicate that municipalities are primarily motivated by seizing local economic development opportunities (enhanced local energy conditions, financial gains and savings, and local industry revitalization), future-proofing communities against disasters, and enhancing the local quality of life. Key barriers and enablers were identified across four categories: municipal resources and authority (budgets, dedicated staff, and empowered climate agencies), knowledge and expertise (staff climate competence), institutional coherence (cross-departmental coordination and stakeholder involvement), and political will and leadership (the presence of climate champions and awareness within city halls and among residents). Accordingly, we discuss implications and derive recommendations toward strengthened local action in Japan and beyond.
Karlson Hargroves, Peter Newman, Ganesh Raj Joshi, Benjamin James
A dominance of private vehicles in cities around the world has led to unsustainable levels of congestion, pollution, and human harm, which stand to be exacerbated by future growth. This paper briefly outlines the implications of rapid urbanization based on private vehicles and then provides an overview of the benefits associated with Integrated Shared Transit (IST) services. IST can provide a number of benefits such as improved public health outcomes, reduced congestion, and reduced land use from car parking, along with economic development and job creation Opportunities. A recent study suggested this approach presents strong local economic multipliers with every US$1 invested in shared transit creating as much as US$4 in economic returns. The paper then provides a review of four important areas, namely: the shift to electro-mobility, the creation of transit activated corridors (TACs), advanced freight telematics exchange, and the use of disruptive technologies including artificial intelligence and distributed ledgers. The paper then concludes with the recommendation to shift focus from a model of private vehicle dominance to a system of integrated shared transit that is supported by private modes.
Yinxin Su, Yuzhe Wu, Charles L. Choguill, Jiaojiao Luo · 5 authors
Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a sustainable land use planning tool based on land value-added capturing and urban quality improvements and has been vigorously promoted by Chinese city governments. However, few studies have been conducted on the role of the âland financeâ model and on people-oriented planning approach focusing on urban inclusive growth. This paper examines the current implementation of TOD in China and attempts to explore the approach to the paradigm transformation of urban development in China. Evidence from Hangzhou illustrates that the current land-centered and property-led urban rail transit construction, although contributing to the economic sustainability of âurban development strategyâ, has led to unaffordable housing prices and failed to decentralize population away from downtown areas. This study highlights inclusive growth models which integrate TOD planning with affordable housing for the floating population, not only to ensure equity in housing affordability and space accessibility but also to promote polycentric urban development strategies. The locations of inclusive growth models include new towns/sub-cities, traditional cores and suburbs, which are all based on existing industrial cluster areas and promote the full utilization of existing public service facilities.
Abstract Under the system of political centralization and economic decentralization, the expanding scale of land finance and the increasingly severe environmental pressure have jointly become crucial features of China's urban development. Therefore, it is of great practical significance to study the intrinsic mechanism of land finance on haze pollution for China's economy to achieve kinetic energy transformation and green development. This paper empirically analyzes the impact of land finance on haze pollution using a dynamic spatial Durbin model based on panel data of 269 prefectureâlevel cities in China from 2004 to 2017. The statistical results show that haze pollution has a significant âsnowball effectâ and space spillover effect. Land finance has a significant positive effect on haze pollution. Land transfer both by agreement and by bid invitation, auction, and listing have significant positive effect on haze pollution. However, the promoting effect of land transfer by agreement on haze pollution is significantly higher than that of land sale by bid invitation, auction, and listing. Furthermore, regional heterogeneity implies that for cities in the eastern region, land finance is conducive to alleviating haze pollution. In contrast, for cities in the central and western regions, land finance significantly promotes haze pollution.
This report investigates and develops specifications for using blockchain and distributed organizations to enable decentralized delivery and finance of urban infrastructure. The project explores use cases, including: providing urban greening, street or transit infrastructure; services for street beautification, cleaning and weed or graffiti abatement; potential ways of resource allocation ADU; permitting and land allocation; and homeless housing. It establishes a general process flow for this blockchain architecture, which involves: 1) the creation of blocks (transactions); 2) sending these blocks to nodes (users) on the network for an action (mining) and then validation that that action has taken place; and 3) then adding the block to the blockchain. These processes involve the potential for creating new economic value for cities and neighborhoods through proof-of-work, which can be issued through a token (possibly a graphic non-fungible token), certificate, or possible financial reward. We find that encouraging trading of assets at the local level can enable the creation of value that could be translated into sustainable âmining actionsâ that could eventually provide the economic backstop and basis for new local investment mechanisms or currencies (e.g., local cryptocurrency). These processes also provide an innovative local, distributed funding mechanism for transportation, housing and other civic infrastructure.
Abstract The Housing Choice Voucher Program assists lowâincome families to afford decent housing and provide them with better economic opportunities. There is growing evidence that public transportation plays an important role in shaping the residential location choices of lowâincome households. However, transportation has not been a major focus of the research related to housing voucher programs. We develop a general equilibrium model of a city with multiple districts, decentralized employment, multiple commuting modes, and locally financed education. We compare housing vouchers with transportation vouchers with respect to poverty deconcentration, educational quality in each district, unskilled employment in the suburbs, and welfare.
Richard Bluhm, Andreas Fuchs, Austin Strange, Axel Dreher · 6 authors
This paper studies the causal effect of transport infrastructure on the spatial distribution of economic activity within subnational regions across a large number of developing countries. To do so, we introduce a new global dataset of geolocated Chinese grant- and loan-financed development projects from 2000 to 2014 and combine it with measures of spatial concentration based on remotely sensed data. We find that Chinese-financed transportation projects decentralize economic activity within regions, as measured by a spatial Gini coefficient , by 2.2 percentage points. The treatment effects are particularly strong in regions that are less developed, more urbanized, and located closer to cities.
This paper documents inequitable transit-based accessibility to sectoral jobs among population groups with different educational attainment and hukou status in Beijing, China. A cumulative transit-based job accessibility measure is applied and multiple data sources are used, including the transit travel-time data from a Chinese web mapping service and the population and employment distribution data from the 2010 Population Census and the 2013 Economic Census of Beijing. We find clear differences in transit-based job accessibility among employment sectors and among population groups in Beijing. On average, jobs in the finance sector are the most accessible by transit, and jobs in the manufacturing sector are the least accessible by transit. Despite having the highest transit dependency, the low-educated migrant population has the lowest transit-based job accessibility regardless of employment sectors. The disparities are especially large when tying specific populations with specific sectors. Within 60 minutes, the low-educated migrant population using transit, on average, can only access 4.6% of total manufacturing jobs in Beijing. In contrast, the same measure for the highly educated local population accessing jobs in the finance sector is as high as 48.3%. The findings suggest that general transit improvements and jobs and population redistribution efforts, without specific sectoral and population considerations, are unlikely to create equal access to job opportunities. In Beijing, greater attention must be paid to connect the low-educated migrant population to low-skilled and decentralized jobs in the manufacturing, construction, and transportation and storage sectors.
Sep 8, 2017·Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers
As cities become increasingly dense, they must turn to novel technologies and frameworks to address the mobility challenges that will arise. 50% of trips in the U.S. are less than 3 miles, and could be replaced by a more sustainable and space-efficient mode of transportation, such as bicycling, if effective policies and incentives were implemented.
This thematic edition of Policy & Society contains a set of seven articles about transport infrastructure policy in the Peopleâs Republic of China. Though they all revolve around this central topic, they cover different facets, such as the influence of Confucian values on decision-making, its impact on macro-economic development and regional distribution, power relations within Public Private Partnerships, organizational and contractual relations in subway construction, the duration of decision-making processes and the viability of developing Transit Oriented Development in Chinese cities. This first contribution will sketch a general overview of two driving forces behind Chinaâs motorization process (economic growth and urbanization), what the impact has been on the expansion of the transport networks and hubs and what social and policy problems Chinese authorities currently have to tackle as a consequence of these developments. It ends with a small prospectus of the other six contributions to this volume. As it has transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market economy since the late 1970s with the âopening-upâ policies brought forward by Deng Xiaoping, China has experienced rapid economic growth of almost 10% per annum on average (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2009; OECD, 2010). Over the past three decades, China has regarded economic growth as a national priority to improve human welfare and eradicate poverty, while GDP as a primary economic growth indicator has been extensively used to assess the success of national or regional economic policies (Wen & Chen, 2008). National GDP increased from 455 to 39,798 billion RMB between 1980 and 2010. In the same period, per capita income rose from 463 to 29,940 RMB. Given the impressive growth performance, three globalized regional economies, those of the Pearl River Delta, the Yangtze River Delta and the Bohai Rim Bay Area, have continued to outperform all other regions in China (Fig. 1). These three regions, which together account for only 1.6% of Chinaâs total land area, have contributed 12.3%, 27.4% and 26.3% respectively to Chinaâs national GDP in recent years on average (Tuan, Ng et al., 2009). Chinaâs geography. Capital investment (including domestic investment and foreign direct investment), international trade and capital accumulation are three key determinants for Chinaâs rapid economic growth (Tuan et al., 2009; Whalley & Xin, 2010). Chinaâs institutional reforms have fundamentally transformed the economic system through introducing decentralization and privatization: the transfer of economic-decision power from the central government to local authorities and the permission of (foreign) private investment in public infrastructures, which provides significant incentive for local authorities to build and expand the fixed assets of their localities with widening financial sources. This has resulted in large scale fixed-asset investment over the past three decades. According to the official statistics, fixed-asset investment relative to GDP rose from 20.0% in 1980 to 69.9% in 2010. On the other hand, the opening-up development strategy, together with preferential policies for foreign investors and outward-looking industries, has vigorously promoted Chinaâs absorption of foreign direct investment (FDI) and international trade. Since the restriction on FDI inflows into China was removed in 1979 and a new foreign investment law was enacted in 1984, China has received a large amount of FDI flows and become the largest FDI recipient among developing countries. Usually, the FDI inflows are realized by establishing foreign invested enterprises (FIEs) in China, which are often joint ventures between foreign companies and Chinese enterprises. These FIEs account for about 20â40% of Chinaâs GDP in recent years and without them Chinaâs overall GDP growth rate could have been around 3.4% points lower (Whalley & Xin, 2010). Furthermore, international trade has produced a continuously growing trade surplus since 1978. Chinaâs remarkable economic growth has been concomitant with an almost equally rapid growth in urban expansion (Deng, Huang et al., 2008; Ho & Lin, 2004; Lichtenberg & Ding, 2009; Lin, 2001, 2007; Zhou & Ma, 2000). Urban expansion, on the one hand, refers to the situation of spreading spatially outwards from the city to its outskirts, and on the other hand, it refers to the process of in situ urbanization of rural areas, i.e. the gradual abandonment of agriculture as a way of life in favor of work in rural industries (Friedmann, 2005; Yusuf & Saich, 2008). On a national scale, Chinaâs urban land area increased by 817,000 ha in the period of 1990â2000 and sprawled even faster in the period of 2001â2005 by 849,400 ha (Han, 2010; Lin & Ho, 2005). And the most significant expansion often occurred in coastal city-regions (e.g. Liaoning, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, etc.), especially in those large cities whose urban centers are surrounded by secondary cities and rural townships (Deng & Huang, 2004; Wei & Zhao, 2009). On a local scale, individual cities have been adding huge amounts of suburban land to their already urbanized areas. For instance, large cities such as Beijing and Guangzhou experienced growth in urban land use of 30â50% in the past 15 years (Han, 2010; Wu, Li et al., 2006; Yu & Ng, 2007). City agglomerations including the BeijingâTianjinâHebei region and the Pearl River Delta region expanded more than 70% in the 1990s (Li & Yeh, 2004; Tan, Li et al., 2005). In addition, small cities expanded even more rapidly than the large ones. In the BeijingâTianjinâTangshan region the urban area of small cities increased by 80% in the same decade (Tan et al., 2005). One widely discussed reason leading to the urban expansion in China is the growth of the urban population (Liu, Zhan et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2006). From 1978 to 2010, Chinaâs urban population increased from about 172 million to 666 million and the level of urbanization rose from 18% to 49.7% (Han, 2010). Because of the growing difference in living standards between urban and rural areas, the pressure of urbanization is bound to increase further in the future. Urban expansion is therefore taking place in order to accommodate this population growth. Similarly, the economic growth and changes in the industrial structure naturally extend urban activities to the peripheral areas, and make rural areas industrialized. In addition, the rapid urban expansion is also a result of local governmentâs policy for economic development. New projects such as industrial parks in the urban fringe areas reflect the intention of the local government to promote regional economic growth by constructing infrastructures and setting up ancillary facilities to improve the competitive edge of the locality and attract outside investors (Deng & Huang, 2004; Wu, Xu et al., 2007). Such urban expansion necessitates changes in land use in Chinese cities (Lichtenberg & Ding, 2009; Lin, 2002; Wei & Zhao, 2009; Yang & Gakenheimer, 2007). While expanding outward, cities do not simply replicate their old fabrics in the new areas: fundamental structural transformation takes place. Traditionally, the pre-reform urban settlement in China included state and collectively owned enterprises that contained their own housing and commercial facilities along with their production activities. With the advent of the land and housing reforms introduced in early 1980s, the urban fabric has been altered in many different ways. Most evidently, many state-owned enterprises have moved their production activities to new suburbs while leaving the employees still living in the same localities to enjoy various urban amenities. And in most cases, new enterprises no longer stick to the traditional model of mixing workplace and residence. Housing supply has been subjected to the market mechanism. In addition, the centers of Chinese cities, formerly occupied by working class families, are transferred to business offices, retail stores and the governmental sector constituting Central Business Districts (CBDs). And households seek suburban locations with lower densities, less traffic and noise, and larger, more modern housing. Furthermore, when urban expansion is limited by urban boundaries set by the Chinese central government, Chinese cities start to develop anchor-institutions and satellite communities as new development zones which are connected with inter-regional railways or expressways. Additionally, the evolution of land use in large Chinese cities is towards a multi-centered city layout in order to avoid high traffic density in the urban core. Chinaâs staggering developments in terms of economic growth and urban expansion have far-reaching impact on and pose challenges for its transport sector. This mainly refers to the ever growing traffic demand from individual users and the business sector, requiring constant network construction and expansion and involves almost countless amounts of land and funding. In the next section, we present the state-of-the-art knowledge on transport infrastructure development under these twin forces. Fig. 2 shows that almost all the transport modes have experienced rapid growth in passenger traffic demand from 1980 to 2010 after Chinaâs economic reforms. The traffic flows concentrated on railways and roads, while the trend of road transport has exceeded rail since 1995. In addition, the volume of passengers who traveled by air in recent years is also increasing, given that more Chinese can now afford air travel with higher personal incomes, and under its economic boom an increasing number of foreign tourists and business travelers come to the country. In contrast, less and less people travel by ship because of the relatively low accessibility of inland waterways and long travel times. Therefore, over the past 30 years a tremendous transition took place among the transport modes in terms of their market shares. As we can see in Table 1, the share of railway transport for passengers has fallen by 29%, while the share of roads has increased roughly by 23%. In the same period, the share of air transport for passengers increased from 2% to 13.8%, and the share of waterway transport declined from 6% to 0.2%. Passenger traffic flows (in 100 million passenger-km). Transitions of market shares of different transport modes (1980â2010). Transitions of market shares of different transport modes (1980â2010). Apart from the long-distance inter-city transport, Fig. 3 shows that the numbers of passengers traveling with the urban bus system and urban metro system also experienced steady growth in the past decade. Passenger numbers travelling by bus increased from 24.6 billion people in 1995 to about 60 billion in 2010, while in the same period passengers using the metro system for trips grew from 0.45 to around 4 billion. Since 2000 urban subways and light rail received massive investments and the total metro length in the whole country reached 1469 km in late 2011. The growth rate of passenger flows by metro exceeded that of buses. However, the increase in the traffic flows by bus and metro does not imply that public transit enjoys a higher modal split relative to private vehicles. Rising per capita income among citizens in China and removing the restrictions imposed by the Chinese government on private car ownership have already led to a highly problematic level of motorization. During 1985â2010 the private car ownership in China increased from 284,900 to 86,060,000 (Fig. 4). As a result, mobility depending on automobiles in large Chinese cities accounts for more than 60% compared with the mobility by public transit. Urban traffic flows by bus and metro (1995â2010, in billion passengers). Private car ownership in China (1978â2010, in million). Table 2 shows the status of investment in transport infrastructures in China from 2001 to 2009, and we can see that the scale of the investment shows a massive increase from 243.2 billion RMB in 2001 to 2327.1 billion RMB in 2009. Grouped by mode, a majority of the investment was spent on road and railway constructions while only a small part was invested on urban, air and waterway transport. If grouped by different sources of financing, total investment from the fiscal budget of the central government ranged from 18.3% to 30.4%, and the remaining part came from local governments that may use their local fiscal budget, obtain loans from banks or otherwise attract private capital. When differentiating the investment by ownership, we can see that more than 90% of the investment was from public sources, only around 4â6% was private and a very tiny part from collective sources. Investments in transport infrastructures (2001â2009). Investments in transport infrastructures (2001â2009). Since the mid-1980s, China has invested massively in road infrastructure. The resulting expansion of the road network, has contributed greatly to, and has also been strongly stimulated by, Chinaâs continuing economic development and the reduction of rural poverty (Fan & Chan-Kang, 2008). By the end of 2009, the total length of the road network was about 3,860,800 km, of which 65,100 km are expressways, compared with a figure of 1,698,000 km in total and 19,437 km for expressways in 2001. However, relative to the breadth and length of Chinaâs geographical area and its large population size, its road network still ranks among the sparsest in the world in terms of density and coverage. Focusing only on expressways, the fast construction and expansion originated from the first approved âNational Trunk Road System Planâ in the late 1990s. The plan was originally designed for a 35,000-km network including 5 north-south expressways and expressways. And the was billion RMB. By the end of of the planned roughly km, However, by the continuously traffic demand for roads, the Chinese central government expanded the plan into a Planâ in late to build Beijing north-south expressways and expressways, km (Fig. The is in and the total is 2 RMB. more than km have been network are to Chinaâs economic development and social and railway transport is still the most used and for the of passengers and in large and long The length of railways in has increased from km in 1980 to about km in 2009. This expansion of the railway network up in recent years because of the of the and Planâ in (Fig. in the plan are to in when the total length of railways in roughly In to network expansion, the of this plan are to km passenger as as to of the to and the end of 2010, China has around km that are with new and and with the of foreign China has with a of in this plan new are planned in China. and railway network The air transport has been of in the 30 years as a result of and Over the same period, air transport in China has also been significant transformation the âopening-upâ policies since In passengers and the only million passengers and million while the figure in has to million and Such rapid growth in air traffic of passengers and have been a result of the increase in leading to an increase in of air passenger transport, and the trend in the of which China has become a has been growing demand for air as Chinaâs infrastructure has and 2009, the Chinese governments all invested billion RMB in constructing and By China has with a density of per are international of which have of and a of of for as as more than that could accommodate and regions, coastal and cities have modern In addition, areas, regions and areas with transport infrastructures also have Urban transit an in transport within urban areas as cities in China. And among the to traffic and huge investments in urban rail in Chinese have been to 1980 when urban rail could in Chinese cities, the total length of urban rail in reached km (Fig. And bus transit have also been from km in 1995 to km in 2009. In addition, the urban trips by Chinese citizens have also increased from billion in 1995 to around billion in 2009. Such an increase in urban traffic demand urban rail Urban rail are currently in Chinese cities. for and rail and new in 15 other Chinese cities. Transit are also or expanded in and The cities of and also on city subway constructions in Chinese cities. along with the twin developments of economic growth and urban expansion, China has experienced rapid transport infrastructure development in recent Such in terms of network expansion, has for accessibility the regional and the local This has been by various Li and the projects and their impact on the accessibility of individual and and and et the accessibility impact of the development of the and railway Xu et the impact of railways on the accessibility on the and a more by taking into account rail and road transport in the of regional accessibility in the Yangtze River However, while the huge are a of the transport sector has Since most of the transport projects are concentrated in central and regions in China, people new transport infrastructure will more regional accessibility or more development & Statistics have that large regional in the density and of road infrastructure in China, for The region is by roads compared to the central and coastal In only and km of roads for of land in and of China, compared to more than km per of land in and central all and are in roads, with a density of only km per of In addition, road is also the in the roads expressways, and class roads account for less than 6% of the road network (Fan & Chan-Kang, 2008). the especially for the passenger most have that their construction will increase the between cities and their et al., For after the of cities connected to this system while cities to this Xu et al., 2010). Apart from the in Chinaâs transport infrastructure around the motorization and the that with it in urban areas. While cities most of them are changes in transport which in the growth of long-distance the trend of mobility and the increase in urban traffic demand Zhao, 2010). The growth of private car ownership in China, which has for people to their of and other has led to the of cities and to travel which impact on the urban problems in Chinese cities especially in large can by very low average and high of driving spent and and & 2009; & 2010). In the of the increase in including those of and air transport, not only in China also in other developing According to the the growth rate in by the transport sector in developing is 3.4% 2006; Zhao, 2010). In Chinaâs motorization the transport use of increased from in 2001 to in of total and it is to in & 2008; et al., 2007; & 2009; & 2010; Zhao, 2010). This situation is more in large Chinese cities & 2008). Beijing as an the number of private in Beijing 4 million in and will still increase an rate of in the trips by private increased by while trips by public transport only increased by The transport sector in Beijing for of total urban and air to road transport was of total air behind the from industrial production 2009). In to the the travel also to higher numbers of traffic The that in the as a consequence of road traffic was that in and And in the same the of China was higher than in & 2009). As the in the points many impressive developments have place in the three when it to transport infrastructure many challenges still in terms of regional and income and and the and to with these In the remaining six contributions to this recent on transport infrastructure in China will and its In the next and will the into the of Confucian values and their modern impact on decision-making on transport infrastructures in China. are Confucian what are their and and to what can they for of infrastructure development in the most This amounts to for and who to the of their own also to Chinese and public for very have a In the and a into on infrastructure investments in China and make an to their impact on economic development that the economic impact of transport infrastructure investments is and after especially in the more of China. also come of regional within that large country and that it was a for the various governments to on investments in the of the that the macro-economic of on the central may very more than those forward the The by and takes to the of Public Private as to road construction and in China. It the power relations between the government, the private sector and which the process in for infrastructure. It that the institutional and power and The is to in a road in China, it is the with more power (in this the local was to to the the users and the private sector. is the geographical for the in the it is as a city and by the now it is the for a subway construction with a many Ma, and a account of the leading to the of an subway the they the in terms of organizational and contractual which the of the more direct more they do not use the power it is that large and to their and financial while and problems to The is also on the construction of a this on the and duration of the and process of the and the of policy network as in the international as a of and that the success as to fast decision-making in China are not by the such as the process took to and construction of the first has only also that in of the that the Chinese and significant institutional with those in of a given by authorities have to through very is seven in Chinese city of this Yu and Yang has long been as one of Chinaâs cities, in not a small share to its modal many people use its high public transport. growing motorization has a impact on this situation and they a number of to the the one among the and of the public transport model is to the of in transit And the that the modal split after system is to more strongly towards while as to users
Car sharing seems to have the necessary characteristics to compete in the fulfilment of the gap between mobility offer and demand at international level considering that an offer exclusively based on collective transport systems is not appropriate to satisfy some of the modern transport needs. Nevertheless it is only after the system reaches an economic equilibrium that it will be possible to include car sharing between the new travelling modes provided to the community without aggravating the already exhausted public finances devoted to mobility. In this sense, this work focuses on the organizational model and particularly on its possible efficiency derived from a transition from the current model made of autonomous Local Units to a centralized model. Therefore the main goal of this work is that of evaluating if the centralization of some service costs and a different organizational structure could create cost reduction with the scope of improving the economic equilibrium conditions. This work shows, through a summary of the main international organizational models and an analysis of the Italian case, how the car sharing system can be managed without public contribution (or with contributions devoted only to the start-up phase) and determine an entrepreneurial reality in the case of the development of a centralized organization and avoiding the presence of a plurality of small local operators. It is therefore desirable that the new car sharing operative realities and the already existing ones with a decentralized nature evolve from a fragmented and local organizational phase towards a more mature phase where there a only a few operators or a unique operator in the market. After a review of the main European models of car sharing organization, the attention is placed on the Italian organizational model and particularly on the possible efficiency increase derived from the transition from the current model organized in different Organizational Local Units (one for each city where the service is active) towards a centralized model. The main goal of the study is then to evaluate in which degree the centralization of some service and structure costs and a centralized organizational structure could provide significant cost containments with the scope of improving the economic equilibrium conditions and to allow a development of an alternative mobility system to that of the private vehicles.
ABSTRACT\nPrioritizing public tramjport in large cities requires huge amount of money.\nIn Kuala Lumpur for example, public transport services are relatively poor and inefficient due in part to the inability by the major operators to mobilize ample investment capital. Besides, the new funding systems such as the Public Transportation Trust Fund (PTTF) may not be able to solve the problem because they are still unclear and incoherent. Other key challenges are: lack of a pro-transit policy. rapid motorization. urban decentralization as well as dependence on fare\nrevenue and banks to fund new investments. CrucianF. due to the poor design of private rail concessions, government intervention has been inevitable.\n\nKeywords: large cities, public transit, Kuala Lumpur, funding
This article examines the broad spectrum of public policies and their outcomes in Western Europe and North America, in order to identify sources of success and failure, and thus determine ways of improving the effectiveness of transit subsidization. Empirical evidence suggests that decentralization of transit finance and decision making may enhance the effectiveness of subsidies. Transit subsidies are as important as government policies affecting the costs of auto ownership and use. In the United States large transit subsidies have led to negligible ridership growth and no increase in the proportion of tripmaking by mass transit. Greater decentralization of decision making and financing might be an approach to increasing its effectiveness.
India's urban population will double in the 20 years between 1981 and 2001 and could then be as high as 350 million. The 12 cities already having over one million population are growing the fastest and the trends indicate that by the turn of the century there will be 5 megalopolitan areas of over ten million, 20 cities with more than one million and over 600 cities with over 100,000 people. Public transit is expected to handle about 75 percent of the travel in these cities. Like most developing countries, the urban form in India and road networks are not suited for modern traffic. It is concluded that: (1) Decongestion of core areas must be achieved while planned growth and provision of transport be part of urban planning; (2) Transport supply must be augmented while travel demand is reduced; (3) The predominance of low-income population makes public transport of utmost importance; (4) Pedestrians and cyclists must be considered as significant and inalienable traffic units; (5) Area development must include optimization of existing traffic facilities; (6) Transport mode planning must be part of an overall plan to achieve complementary road-rail coordination; (7) Operations research must be applied to every phase of public transit operations and planning; (8) Long-term financing must be established for long-term transit projects; (9) Planning of transport facilities must be geared to overall urban policy of scientific decentralization.
An attempt was made to relate variations in metropolitan characteristics to those in rates of commutation between central cities and rings of 95 SMSAs that contained 250,000 inhabitants or more in 1960 based on the data drawn from the U.S. Census of Population. Net commutation rate and ring-to-city commutation rate were employed as dependent variables and twelve independent variables reflecting demographic, socioeconomic, and industrial characteristics of each SMSA were used for the analysis. Multiple stepwise regression and correlation techniques were utilized in order to identify the relevant variables linked to the commutation rates. Several metropolitan characteristics have been found to explain significant portions of variation in commutation rates after controlling for the effect of the location of the line between central city and ring. Factors showing a positive association are manufacturing job concentration in the central city, percent Negro in the central city, median earnings of SMSA workers, and percent of workers in centralized industries. Those showing a negative association are population size of SMSA and percent of workers in extractive industries. Findings of this study clearly indicate that the level and direction of the commutation between the central city and ring of SMSAs are largely determined by the industrial and socioeconomic structure of SMSA and the locational pattern of manufacturing jobs between the city and ring. The growth of the metropolitan areas has been a dominant feature of urbanization in America since the beginning of the twentieth century. The number of metropolitan areas as well as the population living in them have increased greatly. By 1960 there were 212 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) containing 63 percent of the American population. During this period, a combination of technological and other factors has contributed to complex changes in the functions and structures of the cities and suburbs. Prominent among these are: centralization of such activities as wholesale trade and finance; decentralization of heavy manufacturing activities and of high-income residences; and an increasing separation between home and workplace over greatly extended spatial areas in the metropolitan community. This trend in home-and-work separation has resulted in a tremendous volume of daily commuter movements between the central and surrounding areas of modern metropolis. A basic understanding of commuter movements is essential for a sound urban, regional, and transportation planning. A number of analyses of commuting have been made for the United States and for European countries. Most investigations are confined to one city or region. Thorough analyses of nationwide commuting patterns are rare. Many studies are mainly concerned with direction, distance, cost and volume of commuting, and have not attempted to relate the commuting patterns to social and economic characteristics of the area being studied (Schnore, 1960). Despite the abundant data on journey to work available from the 1960 census (Bureau of the Census, 1963c) there has been little comparative analysis of the patterns of commutation in metropolitan areas in the United States. The present study therefore attempts to relate variations in metropolitan characteristics to those in rates of commutation that were taking place between the central city and the ring of the large metropolitan areas of the United States at the time of the 1960 census. * This is a revised version of a paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Atlantic City, New Jersey, April 1969. The paper is based on the author's Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania, May 1969. I wish to express my appreciation to Hope T. Eldridge, Edward P. Hutchinson, Ralph Thomlinson, and Eli S. Marks for their advice and comments.