Purpose This study aims to examine the dual role of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in elite European football by assessing their financial relevance for clubs and their governance-related implications for fan engagement and legitimacy. It explores how NFTs operate at the intersection of digital revenue innovation and contested issues of transparency, accountability and participation. Design/methodology/approach The study adopts a mixed-methods design. Quantitative financial data were drawn from the Deloitte Football Money League for the top 20 European clubs over the period 2021â2024 and analysed to assess the scale and distribution of NFT-related revenues. Qualitative data were collected from publicly accessible social media platforms and fan forums, focusing on discussions related to NFTs, fan tokens, governance practices and perceived risks. A thematic analysis was conducted, and findings from both data strands were integrated to enable triangulation and contextual interpretation. Findings The results indicate that NFT-related revenues remain economically marginal and uneven across elite European football clubs, with no clear evidence of a stabilising effect on financial sustainability. At the same time, qualitative analysis shows that NFTs carry social and governance significance that exceeds their direct financial contribution. Fan discourse consistently frames NFT initiatives in relation to transparency, cultural meaning and accountability, revealing tensions between club-led digital monetisation strategies and supporter expectations. Practical implications The findings suggest that NFT initiatives require careful strategic and governance consideration. While NFTs may offer limited supplementary revenue opportunities, their implementation has implications for fan trust and institutional legitimacy. Greater transparency and clearer governance arrangements may help align digital innovation with supporter expectations. Originality/value By integrating financial analysis with fan discourse, this study offers one of the first systematic examinations of NFTs in football that connects economic outcomes with governance and legitimacy concerns. The findings contribute to debates on digital innovation in sport by demonstrating that the significance of NFTs lies less in their financial scale than in their institutional and social implications.
The event management sector has experienced significant technological transformation, creating both new opportunities and complex challenges for organizers and participants. This study explores emerging trends reshaping the planning and experience of events, with a focus on artificial intelligence (AI), which enables personalized program recommendations, chatbot interactions, and predictive analytics. Hybrid and virtual formats have become standard, offering interactive digital environments and gamified experiences. Technologies such as augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) enhance engagement through virtual venue walkthroughs and immersive exhibitions. Smart devices, wearables, and Internet of Things (IoT) applications support access control, real-time analytics, and contactless transactions, while blockchain and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) add security and exclusivity to ticketing systems. Digital marketing strategiesâlike influencer outreach, short-form video content (TikTok, Instagram Reels), and AI-generated mediaâare also examined for their role in increasing event visibility and audience interaction. The study highlights sustainability efforts such as digital ticketing, energy-efficient infrastructure, waste reduction, and carbon offsetting. These innovations position technology not just as a logistical tool but as a driver of sustainable and impactful event design. Drawing on Hungaryâs recent experience in hosting international sporting events, we analyze fan engagement tools like dance cams, AI-powered look-alike cams, and personalized athlete intro cards. Expert interviews from the FINA World Championships (2022), World Athletics Championships (2023), and Swimming Championships (25m) (2024) offer insights into how such tools enhanced audience involvement and operational efficiency. The findings emphasize the strategic role of technology in enriching attendee experiences and delivering innovative, future-ready event solutions.
This systematic review examines how elite athletes are leveraging digital platforms, generative artificial intelligence (AI), and blockchain to build autonomous brands, bypass traditional sport gatekeepers, and develop athlete-owned business models. Drawing on 47 peer-reviewed studies (2016-2025), we synthesise evidence across five domains: athlete branding and self-production, disintermediation, platform-enabled empowerment, AI-driven content innovation, and emerging commercial structures. The findings reveal a decisive shift in sport's power balance, with athletes acting as media producers, cultural influencers, and entrepreneurial actors. Digital platforms enable direct-to-fan engagement, while AI tools lower content production costs whilst personalising interactions and extend global reach. Blockchain facilitates decentralised monetisation and data sovereignty, supporting ventures such as athlete-owned leagues and non-fungible tokens. However, these developments embed new dependencies on platform algorithms and volatile digital markets. From a platform capitalism perspective, athlete autonomy is constrained by corporate-controlled infrastructures; from a value co-creation lens, fan relationships become participatory spaces for shared cultural and commercial value creation. The review highlights governance challenges, including ethical implications of synthetic media, data ownership, and the regulation of AI-enabled branding ecosystems. We argue that sport governance must evolve from a control-oriented model to one that positions athletes as co-creators of value and strategic partners in decision-making. Future research should address equity in digital visibility and sustainable athlete-led business ecosystems. Governance mechanisms that reconcile technological opportunity with autonomy protection should be explored as well. Athletes are no longer peripheral actors in sport's commercial order, they are emerging as its architects, with significant implications for the future of sport governance.
Vitor Ayres Principe, Tiago Ribeiro, Wecisley Ribeiro do EspĂrito Santo, Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale · 5 authors
This study examines the innovative application of Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs) within the sports management sector, leveraging blockchain technology to enable more transparent and inclusive governance. This paper explores how DAOs can disrupt traditional governance structures through the democratic participation of fans and stakeholders. It emphasizes the potential of DAOs to facilitate collaborative governance in line with the four modes of governance framework: chief, clan, custodian, and consortium. By dissecting decentralized governance models, the paper discusses how DAOs can transform traditional structures, enabling more democratic fan participation in sport club decisions. The research highlights such innovationsâ economic, social, and environmental benefits with real-world examples of DAO implementations in sports organizations. Additionally, the study proposes a conceptual model for integrating DAOs into sports clubs, optimizing resource management, enhancing fan engagement, and aligning club operations with the Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria. This conceptual model is a foundation for future research and practical applications in the sports management field.
This paper aims to explore the key elements of transformative leadership skills of women servants to accelerate and impact activities related to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Content analysis and qualitative interviews with case research on applying the latest technology with distributed trust networks to provide traceability in science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM), and sports event management in Hong Kong for primary and secondary school students were conducted in AprilâJuly 2024. The attributes of transformative leadership of women servants with innovative ways to track studentsâ sports competition are seldom studied for improving the quality services of sports and STEM service providers in the post-COVID-19 periods. According to the results, it is expected to have an ongoing study on innovative and sustainable ways of applying transformative leadership of women servant leadership with non-fungible tokens (NFT) and blockchain application in SDGs via strengthening the partnership of academia, researchers, business, and industry with SDGs and NFT community projects for sustainable development (SD).
Lennart Ante, Aman Saggu, Benjamin Schellinger, Friedrich-Philipp Wazinski
This paper investigates the potential of blockchain-based fan tokens, a class of crypto asset that grants holders access to voting on club decisions and other perks, as a mechanism for stimulating democratized decision-making and fan engagement in the sports and esports sectors. By utilizing an extensive dataset of 3,576 fan token polls, we reveal that fan tokens engage an average of 4,003 participants per poll, representing around 50% of token holders, underscoring their relative effectiveness in boosting fan engagement. The analyses identify significant determinants of fan token poll participation, including levels of voter (dis-)agreement, poll type, sports sectors, demographics, and club-level factors. This study provides valuable stakeholder insights into the current state of adoption and voting trends for fan token polls. It also suggests strategies for increasing fan engagement, thereby optimizing the utility of fan tokens in sports. Moreover, we highlight the broader applicability of fan token principles to any community, brand, or organization focused on customer engagement, suggesting a wider potential for this digital innovation.
The Indian sports industry is undergoing a substantial transformation in fan engagement, driven by evolving trends and technological innovations. This study comprehensively analyses the current state, methodologies, and implications of fan engagement within the Indian sports sector. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a noticeable shift in traditional fan behaviour, with a decline in physical gatherings and a surge in alternative forms of participation such as co-watching, online discussions, sports betting, and content sharing. The research employs a multifaceted methodology, combining data collection, surveys, and trend analysis. It explores the Impact of cutting-edge technologies like Over-the-Top (OTT) media services, Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), blockchain technology, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Virtual Reality (VR) on reshaping fan engagement. The dynamic and tech-driven nature of the Indian sports industry necessitates a holistic understanding of contemporary fan engagement strategies. This study aims to analyze the current landscape of fan engagement in Indian sports, explore methodologies employed, and assess the Impact of technological innovations on fan behaviour. Quantitative methods like data collection through surveys have been employed to gain insights into emerging trends and their influence on fan engagement. Survey data reveals the enduring dominance of cricket (46%) and the growing prominence of football (29%) among Indian sports fans. Notably, there is significant trust (46%) in in-game analysis technologies, indicating fans' readiness to embrace technological enhancements. While live stadium experiences remain popular, the survey underscores the role of digital platforms, with 57% preferring Hotstar for sports content. The rising popularity of fantasy league apps and the recognition of social media's Impact on player performance (64%) present opportunities for digital engagement. The study concludes by offering recommendations for businesses and stakeholders to adapt to the changing landscape. It underscores the importance of integrating innovative technologies, fostering online fan communities, and tailoring content and experiences to cater to the evolving expectations of Indian sports enthusiasts.
Alan de Carvalho Dias Ferreira, Kassandra Pereria Vitor, Marcelo de Castro Haiachi, Alberto Reinaldo Reppold Filho
The financial support to the Elite Sports carried out historically through tax exemptions to the sports entities, in recent years has been added to a series of governmental actions, with emphasis on the agreements, the granting of scholarships to athletes and the Sports Incentive Law. This paper aims to describe the investment of federal public resources from agreements in paralympic sports, in addition to identifying their main beneficiaries and the types of expenses incurred. In order to do so, a descriptive research was carried out, using documentary research, in the National High-Performance Sport Secretariat of the Ministry of Sports (SNEAR), for the cataloging of agreements, onlending and decentralization agreements entered into by the federal public administration via SNEAR, to finance Paralympic sports from 2008 to 2016. It has been verified that Brazil has invested resources in the Paralympic sport with greater intensity between 2008 and 2014. However, it was evidenced that the Federal Government does not have systematized information or method to systematize the information on the transfer of financial resources through agreements, which was developed in this study. Other public entities, committees, confederations, leagues, federations, clubs and educational institutions are the destinations of the financial resources of the agreements, which can be applied in 12 different ways. Between 2008 and 2016 there was an increase in the amount of funds invested in Paralympic sports, mainly for the preparation of the Rio 2016 Games. The investments made through agreements are mainly in facilities and sports materials. It is concluded that financial resources of the Federal Government are spent without classification of the actions, entities or public to which such resources are destined. Thus, the systematization of this information, presented in this work, can substantially collaborate with the evaluation and formulation of government policies and actions.
In France, the local planning of sports facilities originates from successive public policies carried out at various territorial levels, from national to local. Changes in the stock of sports facilities in four towns, including low-income areas, are analyzed based on the different national facilities plans of the 1960s, the effects of decentralization since the 1980s, and the evolution of urban policies since the 1990s. The uneven impact of these various periods of public policies can be observed at a local level. In addition, the authors study the different approaches to financing adopted by municipalities with distinct profiles but with characteristics which can be transposed to medium-sized towns. While it is usually assumed that national policies in this field have a homogeneous impact nationwide, a cartographic study that accounts for the local context clearly shows the opposite. This study evidences the fact that national policies can have meaningful results only when there is considerable financial assistance provided and when the local authorities are involved. Municipalities remain key actors in the development of infrastructures, which is why there are so many discrepancies between them.
Public policy maybe understood as a question of the State, or as a matter of State action. It is in the middle of the process of application of public services and is deliberated in the condition of social activity, it is also understood as an action of the governmentt to fulfil the demands of the population. Since the 1988 Federal Constitution, sport has secured financing for the development of its actions at various levels of government (BRAZIL, 1988). The Brazilian State is structured in federated entities, they are: the Union, the states (and the Federal District) and counties. The administration of each of these entities is autonomous, presenting an organizational structure of its own. The agencies responsible for developing public sports policies in the public sector generally belong to the model of direct execution through Secretariats and Departments or, in some cases, in the indirect model with Autarchies and Foundations (SANTOS, 2014). The first model presents more centralized characteristics, in which the link is total to the public administration. In the second one, the execution of the services occurs in a more decentralized way, performed by out sourced labor force and not being totally linked to the public power. The main point here is to analyze the relationship of the administrative structure of municipal sports agencies on the financing of sports public policies in counties of the state of Parana. In order to this happen, we identified the administrative structure of the municipal sports agencies, verified the financial resources allocated to thes estructures and finally analyzed whether there is a correlation betweem the two variables. Our sample was composed of 80 counties in the state of ParanĂĄ. The information used for the analysis was taken from the data base of the research "Analysis of the public agents of the national sports system" and from the Counties Transparency Portal. The data analysis was performed used the statistical software SPSSÂź. It was observed the predominance of structures that set the direct administration, specially, Sports Departments that are mostly inserted in counties with up to 20 thousand in habitants. The average value for the development of sports public policies in counties is 1.1%. The Sports Foundations presented the high est average percent ageamong administrative structures, 1.96%, followed by Secretariats (1.58%) and Departments (1.23%). The data indicat et hat there is no direct relation ship bet weenthe management structure, in relation to the amount of financial resource that eachtype of structure presents. The budget appears as a fundamental element, however, the management model seems to be more significant than the financing of the actions itself, identifying the sports manager as a central figure in the midst of conducting the two variables.
âWhat is a festival?â is a deceptively simple question â but also a deceptively complex one. This is reflected by much of the literature on festivals, in which discussion of their multiplicity and heterogeneity, their complex etymologies and histories, as well as the expansion in the second half of the 20th century, and exponentially since the 1980s in Europe, has seen festivals transformed into one of the dominant formats in the current cultural realm. However, beneath the apparent multiplicity, one major feature helps to clarify the issues at stake when considering their cultural significance: festivals tend to be either ââtraditionalâ moments of celebration or... highly orchestrated mega-eventsâ (Waitt, 2008: 513). The first are supposed to be the organic expression of a community; the second, which we may call post-traditional (Giorgi and Sassatelli, 2011: 1-11), are instead mostly associated with the contemporary culture industry and its rationales, their recent exponential growth seen as proof that we are faced by a non-organic, commercially driven phenomenon. The distinction is relevant because, whilst traditional festivals have been studied, in particular within anthropology and folklore studies, as expressions of a given society and an entry point into its culture, values and identity, post-traditional festivals have been dismissed by some writers as banal, and banalizing âspectaclesâ (Debord, 1994). Different approaches and literatures contribute to deepen this gulf, with contemporary festivals on the whole dismissed by mainstream social science and cultural theory and assessed in terms of their (economic) impact only. In this chapter, after a brief review of the dominant approach in urban festivals research, I try to uncouple these associations. That is, to explore the possibility that contemporary festivals, as expressions of the contemporary society in which they flourish, can provide a valuable analytical perspective on its public culture.
Fordism-Keynesianism gradually transited to neoliberalism during 1970s economic recession in capitalist society, shifting urban governance from managerialism to entrepreneurialism. At the same time, Chinaâs 1978 political-economic reform has led to a rapid development and a profound urban transformation characterized by globalization, neo-liberal decentralization and marketization over the past thirty years. To sustain the development and further promote the transformation, mega-events as one of those entrepreneurial policy programs are increasingly favored and widely used by city policy makers. Adopting urban entrepreneurialism as the theoretical perspective, this research explores mega-events, aiming to resolve two debates concerning urban entrepreneurialism and mega-events in the context of China: whether mega-events are effective and sustainable ways for Chinaâs urban development in entrepreneurial city discourses and whether Chinese cities and their local states are entrepreneurial in nature in mega-events? It then takes Shanghai Expo 2010 as the case, focusing on how the Expo as entrepreneurial city action impacts on Shanghaiâs urban transformation and how different stakeholders behave in the Expo development. Analysis of the case provides some findings resolving the debates. \n \nFirst, through landscape reconfiguration, spatial restructuring and new sources provision, Expo 2010 effectively transforms Shanghai city within a short time, showing entrepreneurial city qualities in diminutive spatial scale. However, it fails to improve social life except those who under high media exposure and is powerless to impress the world as China has little voice in the Western mainstream media. Moreover, while Expo 2010 generally benefits sustainable development by using energy saving technologies in Expo Park, by creating âShanghai Modeâ rehabilitation for affected communities and by preserving industrial and cultural heritage for future creative industry development, it still negatively impacts general urban living and causes exorbitant investment. \n \nThen, entrepreneurial governance is manifested in Expo operation as municipal government unites various stakeholders to ensure the smooth progress of the event, a process explicable by both urban regime and growth machine models. The private sectors are encouraged by municipal government to join Expo market as sponsors or developers and are mobilized interests triggered by Expo opportunities. Civil communities play auxiliary roles that must be united by government to achieve long-term growth. Urban planners are important inter-mediators among stakeholders in Expo, serving municipal government for urban growth. Although âLocal Developmental Stateâ model exhibits at municipal level as âdevelopmentâ represents the primary legitimizing principle of the state above those of individuals and the plan-rationality suppresses the market rationality, the âEntrepreneurial Stateâ model can better interpret the nature of government in terms of coordination and partnership in Expo 2010. The government start-ups commercially operate in financing, investment attraction and land development, actively cooperating with private, foreign capitals and other social forces. \n \nThese findings imply that the event-led restructuring is overall effective for the transformation of urban order from traditional industries to flexible leisure consumption, from monocentric city to polycentric mega-city region, consistent with the tide of postmodern city. They also imply that the operation of Expo by municipal government is entrepreneurial in nature, corresponding to the emerging neo-liberalization with Chinese characteristics.