Nepal?s federal transition has shifted major responsibilities for basic and secondary education to local governments, including rural municipalities. This paper examines how they are using this mandate and what it implies for education equity. Using qualitative analysis of constitutional and legal texts, national sector plans, and municipal education policies and budgets, it focuses on three domains: governance capacity, fiscal capacity, and the alignment of policy and practice. Rural Municipalities (RMs) are beginning to institutionalize their role through education sections, local acts and annual plans, and, in some cases, substantial budget allocations to education. However, legal ambiguities, reliance on earmarked federal grants, limited administrative capacity and politicized teacher management restrict their room for maneuver. These constraints create a gap between rights-based commitments and everyday schooling, especially for disadvantaged children in remote areas, and highlight the need for clearer roles, stronger local capacity and more equitable, flexible financing and accountability.
By 2026, India's urban transition is no longer a gradual demographic shift it has become the central axis of national economic stability. Cities are now the primary engines of growth, employment, and productivity. Yet the financial architecture that supports them remains structurally weak. The 16th Finance Commission (2026–2031), chaired by Arvind Panagariya, faces a defining challenge: redesigning fiscal federalism at a moment when urban India is expanding faster than its capacity to finance itself. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) stand at the heart of this tension. Although cities contribute a growing share to India's GDP, their financial autonomy remains constrained. The combined budget of India's 4,500+ ULBs amounts to roughly 1.3% of GDP, while their own-source revenue (OSR) generation is only about 0.6%. This gap reflects a deeper structural imbalance between expenditure responsibilities and revenue-raising powers. The weakness is most evident in property taxation the cornerstone of municipal finance worldwide. In India, property tax collections hover around 0.2% of GDP. In comparison, the OECD average stands at 1.08%, while countries like the United Kingdom (3.11%) and Canada (3.05%) demonstrate the fiscal potential of robust property tax systems. India's "property paradox" is rooted in valuation gaps, outdated rent control regimes, and extensive exemptions. Despite rising real estate values, tax realization remains minimal. At the same time, climate change has moved from a distant threat to a measurable economic variable. Heatwaves, floods, and water stress now erode an estimated 4–6% of GDP annually through productivity losses and infrastructure damage. In this context, fiscal reform must evolve into what can be called "Green Federalism" a framework that embeds climate performance within intergovernmental transfers. With the operationalization of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency-led Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, alongside the sovereign AI initiative BharatGen, Ind...
This study explores the current landscape of fiscal decentralization in India, with particular attention tothe financial structure and functioning of rural and urban local government bodies. It investigates thecomposition and trends of own-source revenues versus intergovernmental transfers, the extent of fiscalautonomy enjoyed by local institutions, and the institutional and policy challenges that hinder effectivedevolution of financial powers. Drawing upon secondary data, government reports, and existing scholarlyresearch, the paper analyses persistent vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances, variations across states, andthe implications of limited fiscal capacity on local governance and service delivery. Furthermore, the studyidentifies critical policy gaps, administrative bottlenecks, and capacity constraints that undermine the objectivesof decentralized governance. It concludes by proposing strategic reforms to strengthen fiscal empowerment,improve transparency and accountability, and enhance the overall effectiveness of India’s multi-tiered fiscalframework
Bhutan has quietly emerged as a significant player in the cryptocurrency space. This article presents a comprehensive overview of Bitcoin and digital currency mining in Bhutan, addressing its history, infrastructure, economic impact, geopolitical implications, and current usage at both national and consumer levels. I shall explore how global trends in Bitcoin and digital currencies compare with Bhutan’s unique journey, and how Bhutan’s strategic approach – harnessing renewable energy for crypto mining – has led it to hold a substantial digital asset reserve. The analysis covers major milestones from Bitcoin’s inception to Bhutan’s recent ventures, and provides insight into why Bhutan embarked on this path, what it means for its economy, and how digital currencies are being used on the ground.
This letter evaluates Sennimalai Kalimuthu’s radical proposal to transition all private-sector employees across villages, towns, and cities into state government staff. By replacing decentralized private payrolls with a state-administered framework financed by direct corporate revenue routing, this structural model aims to eliminate working-class income precarity and geographical inequality. We outline a phased implementation strategy alongside a dual-metric performance tier to sustain workforce innovation under standardized civil service pay grades. Finally, we discuss macroeconomic trade-offs regarding fiscal sustainability, administrative friction, and the mitigation of capital flight under total labor nationalization.
C J Noorjahan, Ms. Saranya Durga K, Mrs. Ruth Rebecca R
This paper discusses the Union-to-State tax devolution in India during the years 2015 to 2024, which is constructed based on the proposals of the 14th Finance Commission and the 15th Finance Commission. It provides the vertical fiscal imbalance that persists in India, with the Union dominating the significant sources of revenue and the horizontal imbalance between the States with varying capabilities and needs. Based on secondary data in budget documents, Finance Commission reports, and Reserve Bank publications, the study runs both descriptive analysis and chi-square tests in determining the stability and equity of tax transfers. The research results indicate that tax devolution has been inequitable and fluctuating. Big States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh got the maximum shares, with little going to the smaller States like Goa, Sikkim, and Mizoram. Arunachal Pradesh was a small state because of its strategic and geographical location. This was proven right by statistical tests, which means that State size had a significant effect on levels of allocation. The general trend also showed instability, whereby devolution reached its highest point in 2015-16 and was very low in other years, and this makes it hard for the States to plan their finances. Though the share of taxes to the States was raised by the 14th Finance Commission, subsequent changes in the 15th Finance Commission led to average transfers to many States, strengthening inequalities. The research concludes that the existing devolution system still favours the bigger States and proposes a more transparent, equitable and need-based system to reinforce fiscal decentralisation and create a balanced regional development.
Nepal’s health policy landscape has shifted from a centralized, curative model to a more preventive, equitable, and decentralized system. Since the first National Health Policy in 1991, subsequent reforms in 1997, 2014, and 2019 have aimed to expand access, strengthen institutional capacity, and align the health sector with global commitments such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Universal Health Coverage (UHC). The National Health Policy 2019 (NHP 2019) represents the most recent and comprehensive effort to advance Primary Health Care (PHC) within a federal governance structure and further reinforce these national and global priorities. This review critically examines NHP 2019 through document analysis of government policies, implementation reports, and peer-reviewed literature; comparative policy review against earlier national policies and regional standards; and evaluation using the WHO health system building blocks framework. NHP 2019 strengthens PHC by expanding health insurance, integrating federal-provincial-local roles, and promoting digital health and essential public health services. Implementation evidence shows progress in decentralization and community-level service delivery. However, major gaps persist, including inequitable financing, rural workforce shortages, weak health information systems, inadequate coordination across government tiers, and limited inclusion of marginalized groups and traditional health practices. NHP 2019 is conceptually strong but faces operational challenges. Its success depends on sustained financing, evidence-driven governance, improved intergovernmental coordination, and equitable workforce and resource allocation. Strengthening monitoring systems and integrating community and traditional health practices are critical for achieving the policy’s vision of healthier and more informed citizens and for guiding decision-makers in advancing PHC-oriented reforms.