Pedro Armando, Sonia Andrea Naeko Uema, Elena María Vega
Argentina is a federal republic with approximately 44 million people, divided into 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The health system is segmented into public, social security and private subsystems. The social security and private sectors cover more than 60% of the population. Total health expenditure in 2017 was 9.4% of gross domestic product. Primary health care (PHC) was considered as the principal strategy for universal coverage policy for health system reform in Latin America at the end of 20th century. The most remarkable characteristics of the Argentinian health system are its fragmentation and disorganization. An increase of public sector demands, due to a socioeconomic crisis, led to the subsequent collapse of the system, caused primarily by a sustained lack of investment. First care level decentralization to the Integral Health Service Delivery Networks (IHSDN) becomes the cornerstone of a PHC-based system. Pharmacists and community pharmacies are not formally mentioned in PHC policies or IHSDN. However, pharmacies are recognized as healthcare establishments as part of the first care level. Community pharmacists are the only health care professional whose profit comes from the margin on product sales. Contracts with social security and private insurances provide small margins which reduce the viability of community pharmacies. There is a preference by community pharmacies to diversify product sales instead of providing professional services. This is driven by marketing and economic pressures rather than patient care and health policies. Dispensing is the main professional activity followed by management of minor illness and associated product recommendations. Currently, there are no national practice guidelines or standard operating procedures for the provision of pharmaceutical services and there is no nationally agreed portfolio of services. National pharmacy organizations appear to have no official strategic statements or plans which would guide community pharmacies. There are some isolated experiences in community pharmacies and in public first care level pharmacies that demonstrate the possibilities and opportunities for implementing pharmaceutical services under the PHC approach. There is a real lack of integration of community pharmacies and pharmacists in the healthcare system.
Lizardo Huamán-Angulo, Lindaura Liendo-Lucano, Manuel Núñez
Los recursos humanos son el eje del accionar del sector salud; sin embargo, no necesariamente son el aspecto mejor atendido, por ello el Ministerio de Salud del Perú (MINSA) conjuntamente con los gobiernos regionales generó el Plan Sectorial Concertado y Descentralizado para el Desarrollo de Capacidades en Salud 2010-2014 (PLANSALUD) con el propósito de fortalecer las capacidades de los Recursos Humanos en Salud (RHUS) y contribuir para que la atención de salud se desarrolle con eficiencia, calidad, pertinencia, equidad e interculturalidad en el marco de la descentralización, el Aseguramiento Universal de la Salud (AUS) y las políticas de la salud. Con ese objeto se han propuesto tres componentes (asistencia técnica, capacitación y articulación educación - salud) que agrupan a un conjunto importante de intervenciones, las cuales son planteadas y definidas de acuerdo al contexto nacional, regional y local, contribuyendo de ese modo a la mejora de las capacidades de gobierno, de gestión por competencias y la prestación de servicios de salud. El presente artículo muestra una primera aproximación de PLANSALUD, incluyendo aspectos relacionados a su planificación, gestión, financiamiento, estructura y funcionamiento, así como las medidas de monitoreo y evaluación.<br>Human resources are the backbone of health sector actions; however, they are not necessarily the area with the greatest attention, therefore, the Ministry of Health of Peru (MINSA) together with regional governments, led the Decentralized and Agreed Sector Plan for the Capacity Development in Health 2010-2014 (PLANSALUD) with the aim of strengthening the capacities of Human Resources for Health (HRH) and contribute to health care efficient development, quality, relevance, equity and multiculturalism, in the context of descentralization, the Universal Health Insurance (AUS) and health policies. To achieve this goal, they have proposed three components (technical assistance, joint training and education - health articulation) that bring together an important set of interventions, which are planned and defined according to the national, regional and local levels, thus contributing to improve the government capacity, capability management and delivery of health services. This paper presents a first approach of PLANSALUD, including aspects related to planning, management, financing, structure and functioning, as well as monitoring and evaluation measures.
Some health systems faced difficulties to ensuring equity and efficiency in resource allocation have generated processes reforms including decentralization policies. Argentina implemented: Decentralization of Public Hospitals, Strategy Primary Health Care, Plan Remediar and Provincial Health Insurance. The aim of this work is to analyze the decentralization policies since the economic and administrative approaches. The methodology included: a review of the conceptual framework of decentralization, historical analysis of decentralization in Argentina, description and conceptual analysis of public policies implemented in the ‘90s. In all cases involve policies transfer of administrative responsibilities to subnational levels with the incorporation of the processes, delegation and devolution. From the economic standpoint, the measures prioritized regional demands satisfaction, through the transfer of responsibilities for provision, financing and assurance of some goods and services.
Dov Chernichovsky, Gabriel Martínez, Nelly Aguilera
OBJECTIVE: Tanzania, Mexico, and the United States are at vastly different points on the economic development scale. Yet, their health systems can be classified as "developing": they do not live up to their potential, considering the resources available to them. The three, representing many others, share a common structural deficiency: a segregated health care system that cannot achieve its basic goals, the optimal health of its people, and their possible satisfaction with the system. Segregation follows and signifies first and foremost the lack of financial integration in the system that prevents it from serving its goals through the objectives of equity, cost containment and sustainability, efficient production of care and health, and choice. METHOD: The chapter contrasts the nature of the developing health care system with the common goals', objectives, and principles of the Emerging Paradigm (EP) in developed, integrated--yet decentralized--systems. In this context, the developing health care system is defined by its structural deficiencies, and reform proposals are outlined. FINDINGS: In spite of the vast differences amongst the three countries, their health care systems share strikingly similar features. At least 50% of their total funding sources are private. The systems comprise exclusive vertically integrated, yet segregated, "silos" that handle all systemic functions. These reflect and promote wide variations in health insurance coverage and levels of benefits--substantial portions of their populations are without adequate coverage altogether; a considerable lack of income protection from medical spending; an inability to formalize and follow a coherent health policy; a lack of financial discipline that threatens sustainability and overall efficiency; inefficient production of care and health; and an dissatisfied population. These features are often promoted by the state, using tax money, and donors. POLICY IMPLICATIONS: The situation can be rectified by (a) "centralizing"--at any level of development and resource availability--health system finance around a set package of core medical benefits that is made available to the entire population and (b) "decentralizing" consumption and provision of care. The first serves equity and cost containment and sustainability. The second supports efficiency and client satisfaction. ORIGINALITY/VALUE OF CHAPTER: The chapter views commonly discussed problems of the health care system--a lack of insurance coverage and income protection--as symptoms of a large problem: health system segregation.
Since the decade of 1939 the mexican governments focussed the health cure of the poor, children and peasants as public health problems. During the decade of 1980 financement, demographic transition, epidemiological transition problems and the prevailing political situation geared to a health services' decentralization. Presently the mexican health system is composed by public organisms, social security services and private health services. This paper examines some of their problems -resources, eficiency, equity, patients' satisfaction and quality- from the social medicine perspective.
Health quasi-markets aim to introduce competition into the public sphere by separating functions in order to improve efficiency and quality. In different public-private mixes, according to the morphology of health systems, different regulations can govern insurance, financing, and provision of services. The objective is to link financing to productivity, coverage, performance, and accomplishment of goals. Specifying guarantees to provide services for determined beneficiaries implies the formation of a purchase function based on strategic criteria involves three financing decisions: which interventions will be purchased, how they will be purchased, and from which providers. Some health systems in the region have established a separation of functions and some initial finance mechanisms based on results that allow them to be considered developing quasi-markets. On the other hand, some of them have introduced guarantees for various health services. Although such guarantees in all cases aim to improve equity in the level of health enjoyed by the population, they have very different repercussions in terms of the general organization of the related health systems depending on the level of development and the characteristics of the health coverage that the population already has. This study considers in the first place the introduction of health benefits guarantees in quite underdeveloped health systems, analyzing with more detail the case of Guatemala and briefly, Bolivia. Afterwards, a thorough analysis of Chile is done, showing how the health guarantees imply a partial overcome of the fundamental duality of the health system. Finally is considered the recent experience of the popular health insurance in Mexico, whose health insurance system is highly segmented. As we shall see in all the experiences, both the decentralization process and the specific public-private mix play an important role in the organisation of the health guarantees.
OBJECTIVE: To identify the effects of decentralization on health financing and governance policies in Mexico from the perspective of users and providers. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out in four states that were selected according to geopolitical and administrative criteria. Four indicators were assessed: changes and effects on governance, financing sources and funds, the final destination of resources, and fund allocation mechanisms. Data collection was performed using in-depth interviews with health system key personnel and community leaders, consensus techniques and document analyses. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed by thematic segmentation. RESULTS: The results show different effectiveness levels for the four states regarding changes in financing policies and community participation. Effects on health financing after decentralization were identified in each state, including: greater participation of municipal and state governments in health expenditure, increased financial participation of households, greater community participation in low-income states, duality and confusion in the new mechanisms for coordination among the three government levels, absence of an accountability system, lack of human resources and technical skills to implement, monitor and evaluate changes in financing. CONCLUSIONS: In general, positive and negative effects of decentralization on health financing and governance were identified. The effects mentioned by health service providers and users were related to a diversification of financing sources, a greater margin for decisions around the use and final destination of financial resources and normative development for the use of resources. At the community level, direct financial contributions were mentioned, as well as in-kind contributions, particularly in the form of community work.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the equity and fairness of the Mexican health system reform that occurred in the late 1990's. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The Mexican reform process was evaluated using the benchmark-system designed by Daniels et al. This benchmark system was adapted to the Mexican setting by adding specific indicators. A documentary review of the Mexican reform process was conducted to score its performance for each benchmark. RESULTS: Except for housing and nutrition components, the reform included few actions related to health determinants. For health care, the main reform initiatives were those related to extending the coverage of essential health services and decentralizing health care provision to the states. Reform initiatives included few activities related to fair financing, tiering, emphasis on second and third level care, accountability, and transparency. CONCLUSIONS: The late nineties reform of the Mexican health system had some positive effect on access of the poor to health care and administrative efficiency, but little impact on fair financing, quality of care, and democratic governance. The English version of this paper is available at: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html.