Blockchain Papers

Samir A Nader

Psychedelic Minimalism: The Case Against Music in Psychedelic Therapy SettingsIn response to: Kaelen et al. (2018), “The Hidden Therapist: Evidence for a Central Role ofMusic in Psychedelic Therapy.”Introduction: Reframing the Role of SettingIn recent years, renewed attention has been given to the centrality of set and setting inpsychedelic-assisted therapy. The Reporting of Setting in Psychedelic Clinical Trials (ReSPCT)guidelines reflect an evolving consensus: therapeutic outcomes are not solely pharmacologicallydetermined but are heavily shaped by both the environment and the psychological state of theparticipant (Pronovost-Morgan et al. 2025). Within this evolving paradigm, music has assumed aprivileged role, framed as a therapeutic constant, typically curated to be emotionally supportiveor evocative, and especially emphasized during peak psychedelic states (Barrett et al. 2017).The prevailing assumption is that music facilitates safety, emotional access, and therapeuticalignment (Kaelen et al. 2018). However, this assumption has not been subjected to the samedegree of empirical or philosophical scrutiny that other elements of the setting have receivedIn this opinion, I offer a contrarian view: that the inclusion of music in psychedelic therapy maynot be benign or beneficial but could instead function as a confounding variable, altering,distorting, or displacing the very psychological material that therapy seeks to access. I arguethat music introduces external emotional content that may obscure the patient’s naturalpsychological flow, their set, thereby undermining the core objective of psychedelic therapy:unmediated engagement with the self. This perspective, which I call psychedelic minimalism,challenges the default assumption that additive features of the setting, particularly music, areinherently therapeutic. Rather than continuing to ask what kind of music, or how it’s played, bestsupports the psychedelic experience, I suggest we ask a more foundational question: whymusic at all? If the therapeutic goal is to access internal, unfiltered psychological material, thenany emotionally potent stimulus, no matter how well-curated, may interfere with that process. Ialso call for further research to fill this gap, exploring whether a minimalist setting, free ofemotional modulation, offers deeper, more authentic access to the self.Setting, Set, and the Risk of Emotional InterferenceIn psychedelic therapy, set refers to the totality of a patient’s internal state, their beliefs,thoughts, personality, and emotional tendencies, while setting denotes the external environmentwith its sensory, and interpersonal dimensions (Eisner 1997). Together, set and setting shapethe content, tone, and trajectory of the psychedelic experience (Hartogsohn 2016).Psychedelics generate non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSCs) not inherentlytherapeutic in themselves but filled with potential emerging from lowered psychologicaldefenses, allowing dissociated material to surface (Grof 2000). When this material is engagedwith, the therapeutic action of psychedelics obtains; the role of the setting should not be to guidethe patient away from this material, but to allow its unfolding with as little interference aspossible allowing for direct engagement.To that end, the ideal therapeutic setting is emotionally neutral, a vessel that supports theemergence of unfiltered psychological content without adding its own emotional coloration. Iargue that psychedelic therapeutic efficacy hinges most critically on preserving the primacy ofthe set, enabling the individual to encounter their psyche without distortion or displacement fromexternal stimuli; namely, that the goal of what I refer to as the pure set encounter is a settingdesigned to unconfound the set, where every additive feature of the setting is evaluated for howit alters the natural flow of cognition and introspection.Music as a Modulator of Emotion and MeaningAmong all components of the therapeutic setting, music stands out as a uniquely potentpsychological force. It is not ambient noise or passive background, rather, it is emotionallyloaded, temporally structured, and rich with meaning (Bonny and Pahnke 1972). Music inpsychedelic therapy is often justified for its ability to guide, ground, or emotionally stabilize thepatient during challenging experiences (Kaelen et al. 2018). Yet it is this very power thatwarrants caution.I propose that music operates as a phenomenological modulating influence, shaping thepatient’s emotional and cognitive flow during psychedelic sessions. Clinical data and emergingtheories in affective neuroscience and music therapy suggest two primary axes by which musicmay exert its effects: emotional provocativeness, or the ability to evoke strong affective stateslike awe, nostalgia, grief, or anxiety, and personal meaning, referring to the autobiographicalassociations embedded within particular songs (Barrett, Preller, et al. 2017; Barrett, Preller, andKaelen 2018; Strickland, Garcia-Romeu, and Johnson 2020). Music scoring high on eitherdimension, let alone both, I argue, risks overpowering the patient’s natural stream of thoughtand redirecting attention to emotionally charged content that may not have otherwise emergedThe influence of provocative music has been observed clinically and acknowledged even in theReSPCT Guidelines (Item 11), which call for careful reporting of the music used, given itsevident impact on the therapeutic setting (“The ReSPCT Guidelines” 2025). One case studyparticipant described her psilocybin session as uncomfortable when accompanied by music, butcalming and insightful during silent periods that involved therapist-guided mindfulness andinterpersonal discussion. She ultimately chose to move to a quiet room, preferring a music-freesetting (Gloeckler et al. 2024). Another participant stated that “under psilocybin I felt almost thatI had no choice but to go with the music” (Kaelen et al. 2018), implying a surrender of agency tothe external structure of sound. These accounts suggest that music, far from universallysupportive, can inhibit introspection and redirect the therapeutic process away from self-generated insight.Proponents of music often argue that it enhances the psychedelic experience and supportspatients through difficult terrain (Kaelen et al. 2015). But this assumption is worth challenging. Inmany cases, meaningful breakthroughs occur not through comfort but through productivediscomfort: the slow processing of unstructured inner chaos, the confrontation with long-avoidedemotions, or the resurfacing of deeply repressed memory. One psilocybin trial participantdescribed her musical experience as overwhelming, reporting that she felt she was“suffocating,” and that the music was “too much” (Gloeckler et al. 2024). Only during a music-free period did she experience release from resistance and begin productive introspection.Even music that holds personal significance may be counterproductive. A song tied to thememory of a lost loved one may elicit genuine sadness, but that sadness is structured by themusic’s associative framework, not by the patient’s internal emotional terrain. While some mayargue that such triggers can facilitate emotional processing, especially when linked to trauma,the ability to identify and select such music in advance is clinically uncertain and not scalable.Many patients are unaware of how particular songs will affect them until they are in the alteredstate. Furthermore, music that appears helpful in one moment may overwhelm or displace morerelevant material that would otherwise emerge in silence. The risk here is not just distraction,but displacement: the substitution of an externally prompted emotional script for an internallydriven exploration.Gaps in Research, Future Directions, and Analysis of Conflicts of InterestDespite the central role music plays in most psychedelic-assisted therapy protocols, there is astriking lack of controlled research examining its specific effects. Music is often treated as adefault or essential component, not as a testable variable. This has left a significant gap in ourunderstanding of how therapeutic outcomes differ between music-enriched and minimalist(silent) settings. The assumption of music’s benefit remains largely unchallenged, limiting insightinto which aspects of the psychedelic experience are truly intrinsic and which are shaped byexternal influences.This oversight presents a valuable opportunity for future research. Clinically testable questions,such as whether music fosters emotional insight or deflects it, and whether insights gained insilence are more enduring, could inform more effective, scalable treatment models. Randomizedtrials, qualitative and neurophenomenological studies, and long-term follow-ups comparingdifferent settings could clarify whether music enhances or interferes with therapeutic goals.Rather than accepting tradition, researchers must begin to treat music as an active variablewhose inclusion requires empirical justification.It is also not without mention, notable to consider the potential conflict between author MendelKaelen, PhD, the first author of the dissented paper, and his role as CEO of Wavepaths, a“startup providing music both for and as psychedelic therapy” (ICPR by OPEN Foundation 2024;Wavepaths 2024). If Dr. Kaelen has a financial stake in the use of music in the setting ofpsychedelic assisted therapy, this invites scrutiny of potential influence over confirmation bias inhis research, especially given the nascent, subjective nature of current psychedelic medicineresearch.DiscussionPsychedelic therapy is most powerful when it enables unmediated access to the self. Yet music,widely assumed to be therapeutic, may disrupt this process by directing attention and shapingemotional response. As a modulating force, it risks overshadowing the very psychologicalmaterial therapy aims to access. Emotional experiences prompted by music may feelmeaningful but are often structured by the music itself, not by the patient’s own psyche. Aminimalist setting that is quiet, neutral, and non-directive, offers an alternative. Rather thanguiding or soothing, it allows internal content to emerge undisturbed. If the goal is authenticintrospection and lasting transformation, then silence may be more supportive than sound.Future research should directly test this, shifting the burden of proof onto any setting feature,especially music, that claims therapeutic value.

Yuxing Yan

No abstract is available for this record.

Tarannum Jahan, Nusrath Jahan

Crypto-currency, an encrypted, peer-to-peer network for facilitating digital barter, is a technology developed eight years ago. The first and most popular, is paving the way as a disruptive technology to long standing and unchanged financial payment systems that have been in place for many decades. While crypto-currencies are not likely to replace traditional fiat currency, they could change the way Internet-connected global markets interact with each other, clearing away barriers surrounding normative national currencies and exchange rates. Technology advances at a rapid rate, and the success of a given technology is almost solely dictated by the market upon which it seeks to improve. Crypto-currencies may revolutionize digital trade markets by creating a free flowing trading system without fees. A SWOT analysis of Bitcoin is presented, which illuminates some of the recent events and movements that could influence whether Bitcoin contributes to a shift in economic paradigms.

Robert Mislavsky

No abstract is available for this record.

Stan Sater, Rachel Wright

Museums are places that bring people together from all walks of life to explore, consume, and interact with all types of curated art. These interactions don’t always take place within the walls of a museum. Instead, people may access art and exhibitions through other mediums, such as the Internet, via publications and consumer products. Museums extend their reach with licenses that grant the right to reproduce images of artwork in their collections and utilize data sets about the works themselves. We see the opportunity for data sharing between museums moving their historical records to a distributed ledger backed by blockchain technology. In this format, ownership and copyright data will be complete and shared among cultural institutions and the public facilitating greater access, exploration, and connection of cultural objects and works of art. This Discussion is a conversation on why we see the possibility from a personal perspective and is a broader debate on questions worth addressing individually.

Ors Penzes

Bitcoin, but there are other serious players in the game such as Ethereum, NEO, and Ripple, to name just a few. 2 Cryptocurrencies extend beyond the pre-established limits, and thus do not fit easily into the existing paradigm. 3 In fact, their scope is so vast, it is almost impossible to predict their future impact. 4 It is a bit like attempting to estimate the possible size and magnitude of an unknown type of fully mature tree from its tiny infant seed.*So, perhaps we should not limit our imaginations too much with rapidly redundant frameworks and limiting definitions.*The objective of this article is to widen and expose the field of interpretations and understanding of cryptocurrencies while providing some stimulating, inspirational thoughts regarding the unprecedented opportunities and dilemmas cryptocurrencies face.*This mini-thesis has been written almost like a stream of thought, rather than a concisely researched document.*This is because it does not attempt to meet all the criteria of empirically proven research.*As such, some of its statements are unproven, unquantifiable, and unquoted.*Currently, complete examination is impossible because cryptocurrency, and the blockchain technology supporting it behind the scenes, is a rapidly evolving organic phenomenon-it is swirling, moving, and adapting. 5 At this stage, it is impossible to predict accurately what will global simulations.He is a regular contributor to the World Bank doing business reports from 2015 through 2018.

Paul Gootenberg

Cocaine has a long and mostly forgotten history, which more often than not over the past century has revolved around relationships between the United States and the Andean republic of Peru.1 This essay examines that U.S.-Peruvian axis, through three long historical arcs or processes that preceded— and in some sense inform—the hemispheric “drug wars” of the past twenty years. For each stage, I will focus on the changing U.S. influences, signals, or designs around Andean coca and cocaine, the global contexts and competing cocaine circuits that mediated those transnational forces and flows, and the notably dynamic Peruvian responses to North American drug challenges. Each period left its legacies, and paradoxes, for cocaine’s progressive definition as a global, illicit, and menacing drug.This is mainly a synthetic essay, trying to make sense of a vast body of new research in international archives—but the history of drugs also makes fertile ground for trying new methods or approaches from the historical social sciences. Two approaches are worth mentioning here. First, this essay draws on the “new international history,” which is working to overcome traditional academic dichotomies between domestic and foreign actors, dominant and dependent geographies of power, and between cultural and economic dimensions of transnational events and relationships. I thus hope to go behind and beyond standard diplomatic history narratives of “drug control.” Second, this essay shares broadly in what can be termed a political or social “constructionist” view of drug regimes, an approach with long roots in the field of drug studies. Not only official drug policies but our basic attitudes towards drugs (friend or foe, legal or illicit, domesticated or foreign), their variable social uses and bodily effects, and shifting patterns of supply and demand, are to a good degree historically created, conditioned, and changeable. Drug history, including that of cocaine, is about our protean social relationships to mind-altering substances, more than any rigid dictates of biochemistry or current morality.2The three phases explored in this cocaine genealogy are: (1) 1860–1910, an initial period that saw the promotion of hemispheric coca and cocaine networks and cooperation between the United States and Peru in making cocaine into a modern and global medical commodity; (2) 1910– 40, which constituted an era of transition in which the United States reversed itself and launched a domestic and worldwide crusade to banish the drug, while Peru exhibited greater autonomy, ambivalence, and cultural crisis towards its national coca and cocaine; and (3) 1940–80, when contemporary cocaine “prohibitions” came to fruition and a global reach, accompanied by a high degree of U.S.-Peruvian collaboration. But this final period and process also witnessed the creation of illicit international networks of the drug; with them, as we also see, were born the persisting and paradox-laden North American drug dilemmas of the late twentieth century.The half-century from 1860 to 1910 witnessed the erection of legal coca and cocaine networks linking the Andes to the United States and Europe. This era saw coca transformed from an exotic botanical rarity (in the West) and traditional indigenous herb (in the Andean highlands) into a modern global commodity and a staple of late-nineteenth-century medicine and culture. Yet by 1910, both cocaine and coca had become controversial and contested commodities, and the U.S.-Peruvian coca connection was riven with contradictions.Cocaine, first crystallized from Peruvian coca leaf by 1860, was widely regarded as the modern miracle alkaloid of the late nineteenth century. By 1900, the United States had emerged as the world’s largest consumer and promoter of coca and cocaine for a range of medical and popular uses. Coca leaf spread first, inspired by luxurious French wine tonics (such as Vin Mariani) and a growing public and scientific confidence in coca’s active energizing qualities. During the 1860s, leading American physicians, such as William S. Searle, traded notes and fresh coca samples with their Peruvian counterparts. Erythroxylon coca, a mild yet complex stimulant comparable to tea or coffee, became embraced therapeutically by a range of American “eclectic” herbal physicians and drug companies for the treatment of a broad range of ailments, real and imagined. Culturally, coca became the antidote for that most emblematic of Gilded-Age American conditions—“neurasthenia,” the chronic nervousness associated with “brain-workers,” fast-paced urbanity, and competitive modernity. By the 1890s, a large consumer market for coca products existed where none had before. Infused in countless health tonics and patent medicines of the era, North America’s love affair with coca became immortalized in Coca-Cola, concocted in Atlanta in 1886, and by 1900 already one of the most marketable commodities ever seen.3 By 1900, the United States imported 600– 1,000 (metric) tons of coca annually, mainly for this consumer market, and mainly from eastern Peru. One still feels the initial American enchantment with coca in Dr. W. Golden Mortimer’s classic of of of the coca’s was a modern medical the first drug came of medical in the of its Cocaine and and such as By the late of American physicians and research with cocaine and its in from to the of For a cocaine as a for a of bodily and for and U.S. and of became in cocaine to tons of by the of the about a of more more than by some of the in American such as William and William S. 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the and to for and with the in shifting cocaine’s current to in the a itself by of and in the of of the of in a of of and to the United and a of working from to had coca and had the most of U.S. the new cocaine market in large in the North and an of of mainly to the imported the and on the drug to cocaine in the the official on was what about with the for for became an of cocaine and thus embraced cocaine as a or the on drug and one a to that the of U.S. drug in cocaine through a By the late the and of illicit cocaine, an to the the of with cocaine from by of that left a of and from to and the were in from to in the of cocaine’s and new U.S. medical the Cocaine by and to the and the and Peruvian and with or of one is became the of the of and to a of cocaine the while social were by the of cocaine from over in drug on the of Andean and of good and drug the the cocaine, the of illicit drugs the and of coca itself to a of U.S. of the was to for drug between and the of cocaine in from to a the in this and cocaine became to the in the U.S. to the and drug became cocaine’s both and U.S. on drugs of the late new and of coca by in the the new Peruvian of itself and on the which coca and cocaine coca and to the Peruvian an and one of the U.S. to into and this has emerged as the drug of the on which a Cocaine a and in the United American has in for while has a of than and on the of our cocaine But U.S. drug as 1910, to of as and as the in the in the Andes the cocaine has an era of of coca leaf the an indigenous of cultural worth as a herb and or still and of this era into our historical and for in global cocaine from to and to what is in of tons the dynamic between the United States and illicit historically in with official growing of and in cocaine the still North American drug by cocaine, still by and and a foreign not one to historical some from this long and history between coca and cocaine, and this long and between the United States and the eastern But a new and on cocaine’s century or more of in cocaine was and first as a modern global commodity as a foreign and as a and illicit drug to the to and to historical of with from drug studies. are in their transnational of cocaine’s and one to current the and on both of a long linking the United States and the Andes of cocaine’s cocaine in transnational overcome drug for as the of the of our or as the of by Andean “drug its social and forces in to and each Second, and the a of cocaine’s history is the of and