As business transactions and the global economy become increasingly digitalized, international investment disputes will deal with novel assets in new boundary-defiant contexts. Indeed, jurisdictional arguments and objections will likely require arbitral tribunals to confront with the uneasy task of delineating the ‘localization’ of investments in digital economy assets such as cryptocurrency, non-fungible tokens, and data-related investments. However, given that even more traditional assets have raised a variety of problems relating to territorial nexus and localization, the authors believe that the digital economy emphasizes what are essentially differences in degree rather than in kind. This chapter discusses the complexities that arise in considering the idiosyncrasies of investments in digital economy assets within a traditional territorially defined jurisdictional framework. First, the authors present some of those new digital economy assets and canvass several typical cross-border challenges inherent in international investment arbitration. Second, they question how traditional objections to jurisdiction ratione personae and jurisdiction ratione materiae might be employed when the investments in question relate to those digital developments. Third, the chapter raises questions about states’ jurisdiction to prescribe, and ponders the potential effects for purposes of jurisdiction of states asserting their authority to prescribe over investments or investors outside their territory.
Stablecoin -Stable-Caucasus (STCAUX)Technical Whitepaper v1.0 Multi-Asset Commodity-Backed Stablecoin for the South Caucasus Region1. Executive Summary StableCaucasus is a multi-component stable digital asset based on the economic foundation of the South Caucasus and pegged to: ● regional currencies (AZN, GEL, AMD) oriented toward USD exchange rates; ● commodity indices: gold, agriculture, metals mining, oil and gas; ● the region’s energy and resource potential; ● Logistics ● uranium as a strategic component and future driver of global energy The goal of StableCaucasus is to create a regional, resilient digital asset that reflects the real economic potential of the Caucasus and provides users with stability, liquidity, and protection against currency volatility. 2. Mission & VisionMissionTo create the world’s first multi-commodity stable asset representing the South Caucasus as a center of: ● agricultural production, ● energy, ● gold mining, ● Logistics and strategic natural resources Vision To position StableCaucasus as: ● a settlement unit for cross-border trade between the Caucasus, GCC, EU, and Central Asia; ● a protective asset for investors; ● a digital instrument for governments, banks, logistics operators, and exporters. 3. Value Proposition StableCaucasus provides: ✔ Stability — the multi-index model reduces dependence on any single asset. ✔ Trust -each part of the formula is based on public financial and macroeconomic data. ✔ Regional relevance- partially reflects the real economy of the South Caucasus. ✔ Collateralization - the asset is backed by auditable and transparent baskets. ✔ Web3 infrastructure - BNB Chain and Ethereum compatible.
Purpose This study analyzes Georgia’s healthcare transformation from 1991 through both historical policy evolution and the WHO Health Systems Framework, evaluating how reforms prioritized or neglected system components while projecting 2030 outcomes. Design/methodology/approach We analyzed 26 peer-reviewed studies, WHO reports and Georgian government records, categorizing reforms by WHO component and assessing their cumulative impact on equity and efficiency. Findings Georgia’s journey reveals three distinct phases: post-Soviet collapse (1991–2006), market-driven reforms (2007–2012) and universal coverage expansion (2013–present). While financing and service delivery improved (OOP payments reduced from 74.7 to 57%), chronic workforce shortages (1:1 nurse–doctor ratio) and governance gaps persist. The 2030 strategy represents the first holistic attempt to address all WHO components simultaneously. Practical implications Policymakers must balance historical lessons (e.g. corruption risks in decentralization) with WHO-aligned investments, particularly in workforce training and digital infrastructure, to achieve 2030 goals. Originality/value This is the first study to combine historical policy analysis with WHO framework application for Georgia, revealing how reform sequencing explains current strengths (90% coverage) and weaknesses (rural disparities).
The federal government Kurdistan government after period of ISIS The relationship between the federal government and Kurdistan government no fixed in relationship and witness some vibration in region prime minister Nori al maliky and relocate to period of prime minister Hider al ibady . And the beginning of fighting extreme groups of ISIS . and the beginning of establishing international coalition to fighting thesis groups . and try to solve problems of distribution of resource finance of Iraqi oil sells. for theses this research want to study the frame of legal and constitutional between the federal and regional government which depend on decentralization in administration and distribution authorities between the center and the regional and give wide authorities to regional to the constitution of 2005.which gives the executive. parliamentary . judicial . the constitute on decentralization . and was studied in the first chapter in title legal frame and constitutional establish of federal and regional government . and the second chapter studied the security problems during the active of the groups of ISIS which resulted disputes between the central and regional government which led to plebiscite in Kurdistan to leave Iraq . the third chapter will study the active administration to the central and regional government beside the introduction and conclusions which may be help the Iraqis estate .
The political system of post-Dayton Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is rather complex and decentralized, and it consists of bicameral parliaments, established on the national level and in both entities, a collective executive body on the national level, governments in both BH entities, and an additional 10 governments and unicameral parliaments in 10 cantons. The chapter examines the research within the theoretical framework of party institutionalization and evolution of membership organizations. It focuses on definitions and understandings of party membership schemata, both within the legal framework and party statutes. The chapter explores the links between party membership and legal regulations related to the party registration and financing. It describes the evolution of the quality of party finance system, and focuses on relevant regulations on keeping membership records, membership fees, and also issuing the receipts for donations. Finally, the chapter deals with the links between party membership and legal regulations related to the party registration and financing.
1. On 21 July 2013, the Democratic Union Party (PYD, Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat) announced a new Kurdish Constitution of ninety-six articles based on a “social contract” proclaiming Kurdish Autonomous Regions composed of three cantons in a “decentralized federal” Syrian State. Its fundamental basis is the equality of groups and communities. The Rojava is “not a Kurdish State nor a Kurdish administration”, as observed by Evangelos Aretaios in The Rojava Revolution1 (hereinafter, Aretaios), but it is made up of all different ethnicities and religions that have a prominent role in the system of democracy. The people created institutions and organizations composing of obligatory equal quota of women and men of Kurds, Arabs, Christians, Yezidis, Armenians, and Chechens with the vision of a new different multi-ethnic, multi-religious democracy. The fight for survival is in the front lines but the “ultimate fight for democracy is behind the front lines” (Aretaios, 118). 2. Since the beginning of the Syrian uprising, people in Syrian Kurdistan have been fighting not only against Assad's regime forces but also other extremists. At the same time, they have been trying to establish a democratic government through the implementation of a model of hybrid political system; federalism and the “rejection of the nation-state structure” (ibid., 124). The denial of nation-state is a sign that the Kurds in Syria “don't want an independent State but an autonomy within a democratic Syria” (ibid., 104). This is a new regime in keeping with the principles advanced in modern international law and also was formed by the relevant people as a whole. The importance of the Rojava experiment is undeniable.
The thesis deals with problems facing municipal financing in Azerbaijan. Following the exploration of the options for a better design of local government financing.