Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global health threat requiring robust biosafety, biosecurity, and surveillance systems across human, animal, and environmental sectors. However, evidence on how these systems function at sub-national and facility levels remains limited, particularly in decentralized settings such as Kenya. This scoping review was conducted in line with PRISMA-ScR reporting standards to map evidence on AMR containment systems in Kenya. Peer-reviewed and grey literature covering governance, surveillance, laboratory capacity, workforce, biosafety and biosecurity, digital systems, and One Health integration between January 2022 - February 2026 were systematically identified and thematically synthesized, with methodological quality assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. A total of 31 studies (23 peer-reviewed and 8 grey literature) were included. Human health systems were the most frequently represented domain (n = 27), followed by data integration and digital platforms (n = 16) and animal health (n = 14). Governance and policy-related components were reported in fewer studies (n = 10), while environmental health was the least represented (n = 8). Despite strong national policies and digital platforms, implementation was uneven across counties and facility levels, with key constraints including workforce shortages, infrastructure gaps, fragmented financing, and limited use of surveillance data. These findings highlight persistent gaps in sub-national implementation and One Health integration that limit the effectiveness of AMR containment systems in Kenya.
Open access
Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
Patrick Muinde, John Maina, Kelvin Momanyi, Victor Yamo · 6 authors
There is increasing proof of bacterial resistance to antibiotics all over the world, and this puts the effectiveness of antimicrobials that have been essential in decreasing disease mortality and morbidity at stake. The WHO has labeled some classes of antimicrobials as vitally important to human health. Bacteria from animals are thought to be reservoirs of resistance genes that can be transferred to humans through the food chain. This study aimed to identify the resistance patterns of bacteria from pork and poultry meat samples purchased from leading retail outlets in Kenya. Of the 393 samples collected, 98.4% of pork and 96.6% of poultry were contaminated with high levels of bacteria. Among the 611 bacterial isolates recovered, 38.5% were multi-drug resistant. This resistance was noted for critically essential antimicrobials (according to the WHO) such as rifampicin (96%), ampicillin (35%), cefotaxime (9%), cefepime (6%), and ciprofloxacin (6%). Moreover, there was high resistance to key antimicrobials for veterinary medicine such as tetracycline (39%), sulfamethoxazole (33%), and trimethoprim (30%). It is essential to spread awareness about the judicious use of antibiotics and take preventive measures to reduce disease burden.
Open access
Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts