The introduction of digital technologies into many economic processes is changing the functioning principles of many government institutions. This process requires regulatory regulation of newly emerged economic relations and their proper registration and legal protection. The issues of developing information relations in the sphere of turnover of the Central Federal District are related to economic, political, social and other factors that are taken into account in strategic planning, including the national security of the Russian Federation. As part of the study, a comparison of the legal regimes of the CFD turnover using the DLT system was carried out, the legal regimes of digital currency circulation and cryptocurrency circulation as a type of CFD in developed countries were analyzed.
This article is devoted to the general legal characteristics of smart contracts as a means of disposing of digital assets. Smart contracts are a key mechanism for transferring digital assets, but their legal regime remains controversial and unexplored. The main goal. To make a general civil law qualification of smart contracts as a special form of concluding transactions by order of the Central Bank and to justify their recognition as full-fledged legal means of achieving a legal result. The problems under consideration are the differentiation of the IC from related legal phenomena: computer programs, methods of securing, executing and concluding a transaction. The methods used are: formal-legal, comparativelegal, historical-legal, systematic. Conclusions. The IC is a special digital form of the transaction, which has the highest degree of reliability and accuracy of recording the will of the parties in the presence of objective guarantees of its execution.
Chibueze Ubochi Nwamouh, Okereke Aru-Eze, Wilson C. Ahiara, Isaac Adewale Samuel
One potential remedy for the problems with online voting methods is blockchain technology. Online voting has several benefits, such lower costs and higher voter turnout, but its broad adoption has been hampered by security and manipulation issues. With features like non-repudiation and end-to-end verification, blockchain&s;s decentralized and secure architecture provides an alternative to electronic voting. In addition to examining the present status of research and development in this area, this article gives an overview of blockchain-based electronic voting systems. The objective is to pinpoint current issues and predict upcoming developments in blockchain-based voting. Paper clarifies the core features of blockchain technology that are pertinent to voting and highlights the conceptual framework of blockchain-based electronic voting systems. According to the report, blockchain technologies might help with some of the problems that conventional election systems have. Transaction speed and privacy protection, however, are two significant obstacles that stand out. Blockchain-based electronic voting systems must be implemented sustainably, which requires resolving scalability issues with transaction speed and guaranteeing the security of distant participation. Current frameworks must be improved in order to properly utilize blockchain technology in voting systems. This entails strengthening privacy safeguards and figuring out ways to speed up transactions. Blockchain-based electronic voting systems have the potential to be a safe and effective alternative for next elections if these issues are resolved.
The modern judiciary is the key element of a law-governed state ensuring supremacy of law and protection of human rights. The article reviews historical and legal prerequisites for the development of judicial federalism, evolution of the lay justice status, and consequences of centralization of the judicial system. Taking into account the elimination of constitutional (statutory) courts of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and financing of lay justice with the federal budget, the author substantiates the position that, although a justice of the peace maintains the illusory status of a judge of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, in fact it constitutes the main link in the federal (decentralized) judicial system.
Π. Π. Kalinin, Π. V. Oleynikova, Π. V. Bashirov, Π’. Π. Khanov
This article presents the development of a blockchain-based smart contract aimed at addressing key issues in Kazakhstanβs energy sector. The research demonstrates the effectiveness of blockchain technology in automating energy transactions and improving transparency, security, and efficiency in the industry. A smart contract prototype was designed on the Ethereum platform using the Solidity language to automate electricity supply agreements, including energy delivery recording, payment handling, and tariff management. The contract was developed with consideration of local regulatory and infrastructure specifics and incorporates features like role-based access control and automatic enforcement of penalties for overuse. The proposed solution was thoroughly tested for functionality and security. The results show that the smart contract operates reliably under various scenarios and can significantly streamline settlements between energy providers and consumers, reduce operational costs, and increase trust. The scientific novelty of the work lies in adapting smart contract technology to the conditions of Kazakhstanβs energy market. The practical significance is that energy companies and regulators can implement this blockchain solution to enhance efficiency and transparency. The findings provide a foundation for further digitalization of the energy sector, including future integration of renewable energy sources and development of decentralized energy markets. Keywords: blockchain, smart contract, Ethereu, energy sector, energy market.
The article discusses the controversial issues of the legal nature of self-executing transactions. It is proved that a smart contract is an algorithm that automates the execution of legally signifi cant and actual actions, subject to constant monitoring in accordance with the agreement of the parties and the regulatory requirements embedded in the program code. The use of digital tools for recording expressions of will, including software algorithms that create convincing evidence of the validity of an agreement, is being investigated. The authors conclude that a smart contract cannot be considered an independent form of contract, as a special algorithm, it helps automate the fulfillment of obligations under constant control and in strict accordance with the terms of the agreement embedded in the program code.
Huei-Wen Teng, Wolfgang Karl HΓ€rdle, Joerg Osterrieder, Daniel Traian Pele Β· 31 authors
Digital assets (DAs) such as cryptocurrencies, tokenized securities, stablecoins, non-fungible tokens (NFTs), and central bank digital currencies, are transforming financial markets with new business models, investment opportunities, and transaction efficiencies. Underpinned by blockchain, distributed ledger technology, and smart contracts, digital innovations are reshaping the financial ecosystem. However, their rapid growth introduces substantial risks, including fraud, market manipulation, cybersecurity threats, and regulatory uncertainty. This position paper offers an interdisciplinary and empirically grounded analysis of the DA landscape. We define and classify major asset types, trace their evolution from speculative instruments to functional tools, and assess current adoption trends. Additional technological developments (e.g., decentralized finance and NFT expansion) are examined for their role in accelerating this transformation. We also analyze the global regulatory landscape, highlighting jurisdictional differences, classification challenges, and emerging governance frameworks. To address key risks, we derive mitigation strategies via quantitative analysis and case-based evidence. The risks include balancing innovation with investor protection through adaptive regulatory design, promoting cross-border regulatory harmonization to prevent arbitrage and fragmentation, and supporting experimentation through regulatory sandboxes and innovation hubs. By adopting a forward-looking, evidence-based, and collaborative regulatory approaches, stakeholders can harness the benefits of DAs while managing systemic risks and maintaining market integrity.
Oscar Revelo SΓ‘nchez, Alexander BarΓ³n Salazar, Manuel BolaΓ±os GonzΓ‘lez
This systematic review examines recent advances in blockchain-based electronic voting systems, motivated by the need for more transparent, secure, and verifiable electoral processes. The rapid growth of research between 2022 and 2025 highlights blockchain as a promising foundation for addressing long-standing challenges of integrity, anonymity, and trust in digital elections, particularly in academic contexts where pilot deployments are more feasible. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and applied the evidence-based methodology proposed by Kitchenham & Charters. Searches were conducted in six major databases, yielding 861 records; after removing duplicates and applying eligibility criteria, 338 studies were retained. Data were extracted using a structured template and synthesised qualitatively due to the conceptual and methodological heterogeneity of the evidence. The included studies reveal significant progress in blockchain architectures, smart contracts, and advanced cryptographic mechanismsβsuch as blind signatures, zero-knowledge proofs, and homomorphic encryption. Multiple authentication and verification strategies were identified; however, real-world validations remain limited and largely confined to small-scale academic pilots. Overall, blockchain-based voting systems demonstrate conceptual advantages over traditional and conventional electronic models, especially regarding transparency and auditability. Nevertheless, the field requires stronger empirical evaluation, greater scalability, and clearer regulatory alignment to support broader institutional adoption.
LAYER 0: RESTORING REAL-WORLD ONTOLOGY TO DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE The Restoration of Digital Legal Personality through Object-to-Subject Transformation This paper proposes restoring the ontological logic of the physical world within the digital realm. In physical reality, Layer 0 (corporeal presence) implicitly guarantees that an agent is a Subject. The digital world lost this layer, leading to a critical systemic error: the granting of legal capacity to "dead" Objects (code), which results in the mass voidness of transactions due to Vitiated Consent (Defect of Will). The author introduces the concept of Object-to-Subject Transformation. We assert that the only way to eliminate this legal voidness is to re-introduce the human will as a tangible force. The Core Mechanism: The solution is the Organization of the Stream. By actively directing a continuous flow of entropy tokens from physical reality to a digital entity, the human performs a volitional act. This active organization is the endowment of Will, which ontologically transforms the digital entity from an inert Object into a capable Subject. Key Contributions: Restoration of Reality: Layer 0 re-establishes the physical-to-digital link that was lost in standard TCP/IP architecture. Elimination of Voidness: By ensuring "No Will = No Action," the protocol prevents transactions that would be legally void ab initio. Discrete Subjectivity: Legal personality becomes a dynamic state that exists strictly during the moment of active human engagement (Stream Organization). Conclusion This work integrates legal theory and cryptography to create a post-quantum standard of trust, where the human remains the sole source of Subjectivity, preventing the legal and ontological collapse of the digital economy. Keywords: Layer 0, Object-to-Subject Transformation, Digital Legal Personality, Discrete Legal Personality, Sybil Resistance, Capacity to Act, AI Liability, Vitiated Consent, ZK-PoB, Proof of Personhood, Biological Entropy, Model Collapse, Web3 Security, Digital Identity, Intentional Entropy
Open access
2 source records
Legal and Policy Issues
Governance, Compliance, and Sustainability
Legal, Health, Environmental and COVID-19 Challenges
N K Vasilieva, J. D. Darmilova, Π.Π. ΠΠΠ ΠΠΠ’ΠΠ, A. N. Kalinichenko
This article examines the concept of cryptocurrency and its specific features. Based on the collection and analysis of information, the paper identifies the dual nature of cryptocurrency, which manifests itself both in the provision of new financial opportunities and in the expansion of corruption and fraudulent schemes. The article explores legal measures and approaches to combating cryptocurrency-related offenses, as well as current methods of detecting corruption involving cryptocurrencies.
Despite the apparent lack of legal regulation regarding the definition of the content and rules of civil circulation of cryptocurrencies, which is the basis for courts to refuse to consider civil cases involving cryptocurrency, binding relationships related to cryptocurrency certainly exist and are developing. The impossibility of judicial protection of this kind of obligations raises the question of their legal nature and on the basis of what factors it is possible to transform these obligations into civil obligations subject to judicial protection. The purpose of the article is to consider the features of cryptocurrency as an object of natural obligations, to identify facts that serve as grounds for refusing to recognize transactions with cryptocurrency and their judicial protection, to establish the possibility of converting transactions with cryptocurrency from natural obligations to civil ones. When conducting the research, the main methods were general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis. Special methods such as comparative law, historical law, and formal law were used as auxiliary methods. As a result of considering cryptocurrencies as natural obligations that are not subject to legal protection, the conclusion is drawn: transactions with cryptocurrencies have a property such as latency, which removes this type of transaction from the jurisdiction of the courts, giving them the property of naturalness. The facts that serve as grounds for the courts to refuse to protect transactions with cryptocurrency are the following: 1) the owners of cryptocurrencies are individuals or legal entities whose personal law is not Russian law; 2) there is no information about the subjects of the transaction and other interested parties; 3) there is no information about the objects of the transaction; 4) there is no information about the transaction itself.
Over the past decade, profound changes of various kinds have simultaneously occurred in the international environment and political systems, political regimes, and their functioning in a significant number of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americasthat is, on all continents. All of these profound changes have had serious and, naturally, diverse multidirectional consequences for the perception of human rights, attitudes towards them, their normative protection, and practice of human rights. Moreover, they have coincided with the revolutionary restructuring of polities at the international, regional, and national levels under the influence of their technological rearmament, digitalization, robotization, and the routinization of the everyday use of artificial intelligence, distributed ledgers, and breakthrough biotechnologies. This presentation and its journal version examine the most debated, controversial. self-contained, multidirectional trends and countertrends in the development of human rights, their protection, defense, and the practice of observing and violating them.
Open access
Digital Transformation in Law
Legal and Policy Issues
Legal, Health, Environmental and COVID-19 Challenges
This study analyzes the transformation of the state apparatus from the model of representative democracy to the paradigm of the "Operational State". The model integrates meritocratic structures and distributed ledger technologies to eliminate systemic inefficiency (Schwab 2016). The text defines the Lex Automatica doctrine, formulates a mathematical model of the Social Contribution Index (SCI), and redefines institutional architecture through the Stability Triad. The work critically reflects on the risks of algorithmic governance and proposes safeguard mechanisms in the form of civic sortition.
Democratic governance depends fundamentally on the integrity of electoral processes, as public trust in democratic institutions is only as strong as the systems that underpin them. Conventional voting mechanisms whether paper-based or early digital systems face growing scrutiny regarding transparency, auditability, and resistance to manipulation, with high-profile electoral controversies in recent years intensifying calls for more robust and verifiable alternatives. This paper proposes and evaluates a blockchain-powered electronic voting (e-voting) system designed to overcome these longstanding limitations by leveraging the core properties of distributed ledger technology: immutability, decentralization, and cryptographic verifiability. The proposed architecture integrates Ethereum-based smart contracts for automated ballot management, zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) protocols for voter privacy, and a permissioned blockchain layer for regulatory compliance. Together, these components form a cohesive framework that seeks to balance openness with accountability. A comparative evaluation against existing solutions demonstrates measurable improvements in security, voter anonymity, and system auditability. Scalability constraints, regulatory considerations, and real-world deployment challenges are also examined with candor, acknowledging that no technological solution is without friction. The analysis concludes that blockchain-based e-voting represents a technically viable and socially consequential advancement in democratic infrastructure one with the potential to restore and reinforce public confidence in electoral outcomes worldwide.
Radovan VladisavljeviΔ, Aleksandra ZlatiΔ-TeΕ‘iΔ, Svetlana MarkoviΔ
The aim of the work is to present a model of tax control automation using smart contracts, this is a relatively new application of blockchain technologies. The use of new technologies can greatly improve the operations of modern organizations that have digitized their operations. New technologies not only provide a high degree of automation but also provide a high degree of transparency. This leads to faster business with an increase in the level of trust of all participants in the business venture.
The Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation, DAC8, and the OECD Crypto-Asset Reporting Framework together form an emerging normative ecosystem meant to bring crypto-asset activity within the reach of tax authorities. This study asks whether that ecosystem affords a coherent and complete framework for the international taxation of crypto-assets, or whether the heterogeneity of classifications between financial-market law and tax law perpetuates the conditions for an incomplete taxation that procedural transparency cannot, on its own, remedy. The study proceeds in two parts. Part I analyses the transparency framework. Its definitions are settled, but its reach is not: DAC8 and CARF render transactions visible only where a reporting intermediary exists, which places decentralised finance and self-custody outside the system altogether. Part II asks what becomes of the information once it has been reported. Comparing the substantive tax treatment of staking, mining, airdrops, non-fungible tokens, stablecoins and decentralised-finance income across the principal jurisdictions, it finds that visibility does not in itself produce taxation, because states do not qualify what they see in the same way. Beneath the divergence, the study identifies an uncoordinated drift toward functional treatment. It argues that hard substantive harmonisation is foreclosed in practice, globally for want of any authority empowered to impose it and within the European Union for want of the unanimity that direct taxation requires. What remains available is coordination rather than harmonisation: the neutralisation of cross-border mismatches on the model of the linking rules developed against hybrid mismatches, a technique that leaves each state in possession of its own classification. The central finding of the study is structural. The absence of an identifiable counterparty constrains transparency, substantive qualification, and any coordinated remedy alike, so that the framework is coherent across the intermediated crypto economy and structurally incomplete beyond it. The same limit that arises from the architecture of the technology arises, for reasons of its own, from the consent-based architecture of the international legal order, and together they mark the boundary within which the international taxation of crypto-assets can be made to work.
Traditional electoral systems exhibit critical vulnerabilities including vote manipulation, centralized points of failure, and compromised transparency that undermine democratic integrity. This research presents BLOCKELECT, a decentralised blockchain-based secure voting system designed to address these fundamental challenges. The system employs Ethereum smart contracts written in Solidity to enforce immutable voting rules, Web3.js for blockchain integration, and MetaMask wallet authentication for secure voter verification. The proposed architecture implements dual interfaces for voters and electoral commissions, with distributed consensus mechanisms ensuring real-time transaction validation. Smart contracts automatically enforce electoral rules while maintaining cryptographic immutability of all voting transactions. The decentralised design eliminates single points of failure by distributing vote storage and validation across multiple network nodes. System validation employed comprehensive testing including unit, integration, system, and security testing methodologies. Results demonstrate successful prevention of vote tampering, elimination of double voting, and provision of transparent, auditable election results. Implementation utilised Truffle framework, Ganache blockchain simulation, and Node.js back-end services following an Agile Prototype-based Iterative Development methodology. This research demonstrates the feasibility of blockchain technology in creating trustworthy electoral systems, indicating that blockchain-based voting represents a viable solution for enhancing democratic processes while addressing persistent challenges of electoral fraud and lack of public confidence in traditional voting mechanisms.Traditional electoral systems exhibit critical vulnerabilities including vote manipulation, centralized points of failure, and compromised transparency that undermine democratic integrity. This research presents BLOCKELECT, a decentralised blockchain-based secure voting system designed to address these fundamental challenges. The system employs Ethereum smart contracts written in Solidity to enforce immutable voting rules, Web3.js for blockchain integration, and MetaMask wallet authentication for secure voter verification. The proposed architecture implements dual interfaces for voters and electoral commissions, with distributed consensus mechanisms ensuring real-time transaction validation. Smart contracts automatically enforce electoral rules while maintaining cryptographic immutability of all voting transactions. The decentralised design eliminates single points of failure by distributing vote storage and validation across multiple network nodes. System validation employed comprehensive testing including unit, integration, system, and security testing methodologies. Results demonstrate successful prevention of vote tampering, elimination of double voting, and provision of transparent, auditable election results. Implementation utilised Truffle framework, Ganache blockchain simulation, and Node.js back-end services following an Agile Prototype-based Iterative Development methodology. This research demonstrates the feasibility of blockchain technology in creating trustworthy electoral systems, indicating that blockchain-based voting represents a viable solution for enhancing democratic processes while addressing persistent challenges of electoral fraud and lack of public confidence in traditional voting mechanisms.
This technical dossier presents the comprehensive software architecture for implementing Ternary Moral Logic (TML) as a deterministic enforcement layer on EVM-compatible blockchain platforms. Unlike traditional "Code is Law" models, TML introduces a "Logic is Constitution" paradigm, where ethical axioms (Prohibit -1, Pause 0, Permit +1) are embedded directly into the execution bytecode. This dataset contains three technical specifications: 01_TML_System_Architecture_and_Ecosystem.pdf: Defines the high-level ecosystem, including the "Lantern Signal" (proof of hesitation), the "Hybrid Shield" (cross-chain redundancy), and the "Goukassian Promise." 02_TML_Technical_Specification_and_FSM.pdf: Details the rigorous Finite State Machine (FSM) logic, Solidity interfaces (ITMLEnforcer), and the "Sacred Zero" epistemic hold mechanism. 03_TML_Security_Audit_and_Adversarial_Analysis.pdf: Provides a deep adversarial analysis and mathematical verification of the "No God Mode" principle, proving that no administrative key can override a constitutional integrity freeze. Status: Released for educational review and technical standardization.
This article is devoted to the issue of cryptocurrency seizure, using Bitcoin as an example. First, the article analyzes the legal nature of virtual currencies, cryptocurrencies, and Bitcoin, taking into account their technical aspects and their disposability. Particular attention is paid to the methods of storing cryptocurrency, which have a direct impact on the legal regulations that can be applied in the area of enforcement. Next, the possibilities of enforcing bitcoin on the basis of the applicable regulations, including the provisions on the enforcement of claims (Articles 895 to 908(1) of the Code of Civil Procedure) and other property rights (Articles 909 to 912 of the Code of Civil Procedure). Keywords: virtual currency, cryptoasset, cryptocurrency, blockchain, bitcoin, seizure, judicial enforcement, judicial enforcement proceedings, property law, virtual assets, digital assets
Π Π°ΡΠΈΡ ΠΠ°Π±ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²ΠΈΡ ΠΡΡΠΌΠ°Π³Π°ΠΌΠ±Π΅ΡΠΎΠ², Symbat K. Ukin
In the context of rapid global transformations driven by the digitalization of the economy, politics, and the social sphere, rethinking approaches to constitutional and legal regulation becomes especially relevant. This article examines the challenges faced by modern constitutions due to the spread of digital technologies and analyzes emerging legal gaps in the regulation of new social relations. The author explores the theoretical foundations of the need to adapt constitutional norms to the conditions of digital reality, including virtual spaces, artificial intelligence technologies, distributed ledgers, and other elements of the digital environment. Special attention is given to the correlation between digital innovation and the foundations of constitutional order, the principles of the rule of law, and the protection of human rights under new conditions. In this context, the role of lobbying is analyzed as a mechanism for the legitimate representation of the interests of digital actors β technology corporations, civil society, and the expert community β in the process of legal transformation. Based on an analysis of legal literature and constitutional texts from various countries, the article concludes that targeted amendments to provisions concerning fundamental rights and freedoms, constitutional order, and the organization of public authority are inevitable. The article proposes a range of practical solutions, including the development of conceptual approaches to the legal recognition of digital rights, mechanisms for their implementation, and the institutionalization of lobbying activities as a tool for shaping a sustainable digital legal agenda. Thus, in modern conditions, lobbying acquires new significance as an element of constitutional architecture, reflecting the need for dialogue between the state and digital societyβan element that requires constructive analysis and doctrinal study.
This study examines the philosophical-legal foundations of smart contracts through the lens of transforming concepts of autonomy and determinism. The semantic gap between the natural language of law and the formal language of programming is investigated. The ontological status of smart contracts as hybrid sociotechnical phenomena is analyzed. A conceptual vision of "executable law" is proposed for understanding new forms of algorithmic normativity in the digital era.