Zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM) is a powerful infrastructure for proving the correctness of a program execution with a succinct proof, attracting significant interest from researchers, developers, and users. It has been widely used in applications such as blockchain rollups, privacy-preserving machine learning, and off-chain computation. As the field grows, a wide range of zkVMs have been proposed. However, they adopt different choices in instruction formats, trace layouts, and proving backends, which results in a highly heterogeneous design landscape and makes it difficult to understand the relations among these systems.To bridge this gap, we provide a comprehensive study of zkVMs that covers both their theoretical foundations and practical implementations. We decompose zkVMs into three layers: (1) the ISA layer, which defines instruction semantics and determines the structure of the execution trace, (2) the VM layer, which captures program execution and organizes constraints through modular circuit components, and (3) the proving layer, which converts execution traces into algebraic constraints and generates the final proofs. This decomposition allows us to isolate the role of each layer while also examining how they interact in real systems. To give readers a more direct understanding of how these design choices affect performance, scalability, and usability, we conduct a comprehensive experimental evaluation of representative zkVMs following this layered framework. Finally, we conclude the paper by summarizing the main observations from our analysis and outlining several potential directions for zkVM design and implementation.
Decentralized identity (DID) systems promise improved privacy, user control, and interoperability in regulated digital identity verification, including in banking contexts. However, existing DID implementations often introduce usability barriers that limit adoption, particularly for non-technical users navigating Know-Your-Customer (KYC) onboardingâa mandatory process requiring banks to verify customer identity to prevent fraud and financial crime. This poster presents a UX-centred, four-phase mixed-methods investigation comparing a high-fidelity DID-based onboarding prototype with a traditional Web2 (centralised, platform-owned) KYC flow. Results show that DID significantly reduced task completion time (178s vs. 665s), improved perceived usability (SUS: 93.4 vs. 71.3), and increased user trust (6.1 vs. 5.1 on a 7-point scale). At the same time, wallet setup, private-key management, and the absence of onboarding-phase recovery guidance remain critical sources of user anxiety. We contribute five user-centered design principles for DID-enabled financial onboarding and discuss implications for designers working at the intersection of Web3 (decentralised, blockchain-based systems), fintech, and regulated digital services.
Abstract Software development plays a central role in digital sustainability, yet developersâ role and engagement remains understudied. Here we analyse nearly a decade of developer discussions available on the code repository Github on Ethereum, a widely used open-source blockchain platform. Using topic modelling, with interpretation supported by large language models and a sustainability framework for software systems, we trace how economic, environmental, social, individual, and technical sustainability themes emerge and evolve over time. We find that sustainability awareness, particularly related to energy efficiency and cost, intensifies during key events such as the transition from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake consensus, which substantially reduced energy use. We identify influential contributors and thematic specialisation, providing a transferable framework for understanding sustainability in emerging developer communities. These findings highlight the role of developer discourse in shaping sustainable software ecosystems and integrating sustainability into open-source development.
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are unique digital tokens issued on a blockchain to represent the proof of ownership of (digital) items. Despite their impressive technological capabilities and millions of users, research and practice lack an understanding of the factors motivating NFT purchases. In this study, we employ a sequential mixed-method approach to reveal what drives users to purchase NFTs. We performed 65 in-depth interviews (Study 1) with individuals who purchased at least one NFT to explore the factors that influence their decisions. Building on these insights, we carry out two surveys: one with 265 individuals who have purchased NFTs (Study 2), and another with 272 individuals who have considered buying an NFT but have not done so (Study 3). Using a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, we reveal the combinations of influencing factors leading to NFT adoption in our sample. Building on self-determination theory, our aggregated findings emphasize the importance of intrinsic interest. We developed four propositions grounded in our data to guide future research. This study provides unique empirical insights into the adoption behaviour of NFTs as an emerging technology from a user perspective.
This study examined the role of visual design in Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) as a strategic component of value creation and inclusive participation within the decentralized creative economy. The research addressed the growing need to understand how visuals influence identity, accessibility, and community-driven economic engagement in digital platforms. The study was conducted using a qualitative interpretive approach, employing visual rhetorical analysis and digital ethnography. Ten top NFT collections on the OpenSea marketplace were analyzed based on their visual characteristics, creator inclusion, and community interaction. The visual elements were assessed through rhetorical lenses ethos, pathos, and logos, while participation was observed through social media metrics and community discourse. The findings indicated that accessible and culturally resonant visual designs enhanced user engagement and contributed to broader economic inclusion. Collections with visually open, emotionally engaging, and culturally inclusive features attracted stronger community involvement and sustained market relevance. In contrast, NFTs with elitist or exclusive visual narratives demonstrated more limited participation and accessibility. The study concluded that visual identity plays a central role in shaping the success of NFTs not only as aesthetic artifacts but as instruments of economic democratization. It was recommended that future research explore algorithmic visual production and long-term community dynamics across diverse cultural contexts. This research highlighted the potential of visual design to foster equity, representation, and sustainable value in the evolving digital economy.
Blockchain technology is a modern day decentralized databases which presents unique usability changes like âtransaction irreversibility, decentralized trust models, and cryptographic key managementâ which places excessive responsibilities on users that can lead to financial loss and hinders its adoption. Failing to address these usability changes, the current heuristic evaluation models like Nielsen's ten principles need to be revised. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate whether new heuristics are needed to evaluate blockchain applications effectively. During the investigation a critical gap was identified in establishing usability evaluation methods, demonstrating that Nielsen's widely adopted heuristics failed to address 40% of common blockchain-specific usability problems (e.g., users sending funds to incorrect addresses due to poor reversibility awareness). 33 empirical studies were analyzed using systematic review and metaanalysis, mainly focused on blockchain wallets, DeFi (Decentralized Finance) platforms, NFT (Non-Fungible Tokens) marketplaces and Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs). A set of core usability issues were extracted and thematic analysis was conducted to develop four new blockchain-specific heuristic principles:(1) Transaction Finality Awareness (explicit warnings for irreversible actions), (2) Cryptographic Self-Custody Affordance (intuitive key/seed phrase management), (3) Fee Transparency & Control (realtime gas fee estimation), and (4) Decentralized Value Proposition Clarity. This paper proposes a validation methodology via heuristic evaluation of three blockchain applications by five experts would show a significant increase in detected usability flaws when using the extended heuristics versus Nielsen's original set, projected at approximately 31% based on our gap analysis. Reducing the risk of user errors will require a tailored criteria that will provide experts domain specific heuristics to create a user-friendly Dapp. Thus, this paper not only aims to create a novel domain specific heuristic evaluation for blockchain experts to use as a pre- deployment evaluation tool but also to create safer UX (user experience) for dApps.
Move to Earn (MtoE) initiatives emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic. STEPN, the leading MtoE walking applications (app.) using various artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, allows users to earn rewards by walking, jogging, or running with their mobile devices while wearing Non-Fungible Token (NFT) shoes. Although MtoE games have huge potentials to improve our quality of life (QOL), there is no scientific papers to point out the possibilities. This work describes present situation of MtoE and importance of AI to establish MtoE projects, and proposes several potential applications of MtoE, including as an aid to support athletes, international students, and bedridden individuals. This is the primitive survey research of MtoE projects as a trigger to start scientific discussions.
This study examines the intersection of dramatic participation and decentralized creation platforms, investigating how modern technologies such as blockchain and smart contracts within decentralized networks restructure power dynamics in dramatic creation. Technological convergence shifts public engagement from passive consumption to active co-creation. Supported by Bourdieuâs "Field" theory, Habermasâs "Public Sphere" theory, and DAO (decentralized autonomous organization) theory, this research reveals the paradigm shift in technology-empowered public participation in dramatic arts and its societal significance. Decentralized platforms democratize creative authority while applying dramatic participation to community self-governance enhances public discourse expression, ultimately fostering a dramatic engagement ecology of "co-creation, co-governance, co-sharing".
Marliz VelĂĄzquez DĂaz, Diana BarrĂłn Villaverde, Paul SanmartĂn, Carlos Galera Zarco
The virtual worlds of the metaverse and non-fungible token (NFT) technology are converging to create a new paradigm in interaction and community formation. This paper explores the future implications of this convergence and presents a case study using the metaverse to create art communities. The findings suggest that NFTs will play a critical role in ownership, access, and governance within the metaverse. Collaborative efforts are needed to address sustainability challenges. The metaverse and NFTs have potential applications across diverse sectors, enabling the expression of digital identities and the establishment of vibrant virtual communities. While challenges exist in privacy, security, and ethics, these technologies have the potential to build a more connected, creative, and equitable future. It is concluded that the metaverse and NFTs will transform the way we live, work, and interact with the world.
The design of Web3 applications presents unique challenges due to their complex technical requirements. Despite the increasing spread of this technology, there is a notable lack of comprehensive, empirically grounded design guidelines for developing user-friendly Web3 interfaces. This study addresses this gap through a systematic three-phase approach: (1) developing initial guidelines from a literature review and industry sources (n = 31), (2) conducting evaluations using a 14-point framework based on the initial guidelines to test its effectiveness across diverse Web3 applications (n = 25), and (3) validating refined guidelines through expert evaluation sessions (n = 7). Expert evaluations highlighted the need for task-oriented rather than category-based organization of design principles. Based on these findings, we developed a structured framework organizing guidelines into four key task flows, each with three implementation levels. The framework emphasizes progressive disclosure of blockchain concepts, integrated user education, and clear state visualization. Our findings contribute to academic discussion and industry practice by providing empirically validated patterns for Web3 interface design. This study lays a foundation for creating more accessible and user-friendly decentralized applications, though future work should focus on longitudinal validation and adaptation to emerging technologies.
Dhanya Pramod, S. Vijayakumar Bharathi, Kanchan Patil
In recent years, the growing interest in non-fungible tokens (NFTs) has triggered substantial academic and commercial interest. NFTs, are disruptively transforming the realms of art, entertainment, and investment. Exploring the factors that drive individuals to invest in these digital collectibles is central for understanding the broader implications of this innovative financial trend. In this direction, our study investigated the user characteristics, technology characteristics, social influence the userâs intention to invest in NFTs, moderated by investorâs habits. This research extended the theory of trying by including precursors of the NFT trial attitude, such as optimism, innovativeness, discomfort, and insecurity (users); Governance considerations and extendibility (process); and digital asset ownership and indivisibility (technology) and social influence. Structural equation modeling analyzed the data collected from 278 investors through a structured questionnaire. The finding indicates that a trying attitude significantly impacted the intentions to invest in NFTs. Precursors impacting trying attitude included optimism, innovativeness, insecurity, digital asset ownership, indivisibility, and social influence. However, discomfort, Governance considerations, and extendibility were not significant. The study offered theoretical and practical implications to individual investors and the broader digital asset landscape and slated directions for future research.
Frances Liddell, Ella Tallyn, Evan Morgan, Kar Balan · 10 authors
In this work-in-progress, we present ORAgen, as âunfinished softwareâ, materialised through a demonstrative web application that enables participants to engage with a novel approach to media tokenisation â the ORA framework. By presenting ORAgen in âthink-aloudâ interviews with 17 professionals working in the creative and cultural industries, we explore potential values of media tokenisation in relation to existing challenges they face related to ownership, rights, and attribution. From our initial findings, we reflect specifically on the challenges of attribution and ongoing control of creative media, and examine how media tokenisation, and underpinning distributed ledger technologies can enable new approaches to designing attribution.
Xolminds is a web3 based self improvement platform that seeks to support people in reimagining their lives, recreating themselves and coping with mental health issues and challenges.
Chris Elsden, Evan Morgan, Ella Tallyn, Suzanne Black · 8 authors
This paper presents the design, deployment and qualitative study of a large-scale, public, generative art exhibition, through which passers-by could create artworks, and mint a non-fungible-token (NFT). Following the month-long exhibition, during which 229 anonymous participants produced artworks, 69 non-transferable NFTs were minted, we surveyed (33) and interviewed (14) expert and novice participants about their experiences. We explored contemporary challenges of owning digital things, and the extent to which NFTs, and 'Web3' technologies offer meaningful forms of ownership. Our findings describe how the inability to trade this NFT, and its unique circumstances of acquisition, made it meaningful in ways that extended beyond its immediate (limited) utility and offered participants something through which to construct identity. Reflecting on the aspirations, contradictions, and misconceptions of forms of ownership enabled by NFTs, we conclude with proposals for renewed attention in HCI to the nature of digital possessions, and the potential for 'ownership design'.
Abstract Counterfeit artwork presents a significant risk to copyright holders and the economy. Without expertise in art, it is not straightforward to distinguish an artwork counterfeit from a genuine piece. This work designs and implements a reliable solution that enables users with nearâfield communicationâenabled Android smartphones to verify artwork authenticity by accessing its respective certificate of authenticity stored in the Ethereum blockchain. To represent a physical artwork, the artwork image and metadata are stored in an interâplanetary file system and minted as an ERC721 nonâfungible token to a smart contract deployed in Ethereum Rinkeby Testnet. The mobile app ArtProtect was developed to generate certificate of authenticity based on each nonâfungible token fetched through OpenSea Testnet API. Users access this information by scanning an nearâfield communication tag embedded into the artwork. The content of the tag is signed by the respective artwork's artist and responsible agent by using Ethereum signing with their Ethereum wallet accounts. Through testing and analysis, the implemented work is secure, tamperâevident, usable, flexible, and inexpensive to be applied to a realâworld scenario.
Open access
User Authentication and Security Systems
Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Through two experiments with volumetric and one experiment with edible Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) conducted between 2021 and 2022, we will discuss the limits of âassetizationâ and engagement with speculative future and value. Assetization is a process of claiming or generating âfutureâ value that creates various (not only economic) expectations and incentives. To capture the novel aesthetic expectations and experiences beyond assetization, we will focus on the edge cases, such as edible NFTs and also NFTs related to large volumetric (mesh) data. How can fringe NFTs mitigate some of the negative effects of commodification and market speculation? Our use cases show that a major barrier for assetization and tokenization of alternative and novel values, impacts, and goals are the closed data and software silos, but also the user-unfriendly interfaces for interacting with the blockchain infrastructure. Instead of creating new markets and media ecosystems that generate new sources of income for the creators, NFTS still transform cultural artifacts into speculative investments with detrimental effects.
Open access
Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies
NFT marketplaces have witnessed exponential growth. The unique attributes of NFTs, encapsulated by the acronym CRAVED (concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable, disposable), make them susceptible to multifaceted thefts. In response, we introduce "SafeNFT Mart," an NFT marketplace architecture devised to thwart counterfeiting and uphold both asset and ownership integrity. We leverage Zero Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) for ownership verification and integrate a stringent punishment protocol to deter illicit activities. Our design draws from the design science research (DSR) approach. Expert interviews were conducted to fortify our findings, focusing on relevance, adaptability, and technological viability in tandem with real-world and strategic implications. An initial analytical model is provided to gauge the efficacy of our punitive mechanism. This research culminates with future work, outlining the further development and refinement of the proposed marketplace solution.
Open access
Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security
Reporting on the Non-Fungible Token (NFT) ecosystem overwhelmingly focuses on the community that drove its growth and price volatility, gaining widespread media attention in 2021. This overlooks the communities developing novel creative practices on NFT platforms. Interviews with 16 creatives utilizing NFTs reveal a vast Art World: networks of distinct communities maturing into cooperative ecosystems with unique artistic subcultures, philosophies, and interactions. We observe unique qualities of these decentralized distribution platforms and identify patterns of activity comparable to those of traditional art worlds. We identify how aspects of these systems might subvert, or replicate, existing systems of power, value, and access. The impacts of policy and platform design on online creative communities in the NFT Art World carry valuable lessons for developers of digital interventions into the creative industry, exemplifying pertinent considerations for the future of creative labor and cooperation online.
The fervor for Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) attracted countless creators, leading to a Big Bang of digital assets driven by latent or explicit forms of inspiration, as in many creative processes. This work exploits Vision Transformers and graph-based modeling to delve into visual inspiration phenomena between NFTs over the years, i.e., the visual influence that can be detected whenever an NFT appears to be visually close to another that was published earlier in the market. Our goals include unveiling the main structural traits that shape visual inspiration networks, exploring the interrelation between visual inspiration and asset performances, investigating crypto influence on inspiration processes, and explaining the inspiration relationships among NFTs. Our findings unveil how the pervasiveness of inspiration led to a temporary saturation of the visual feature space, the impact of the dichotomy between inspiring and inspired NFTs on their financial performance, and an intrinsic self-regulatory mechanism between markets and inspiration waves. Our work can serve as a starting point for gaining a broader view of the evolution of Web3.
Part of the recent developments in Ubiquitous Music (ubimus) research involve the proposal of the Internet of Musical Stuff (IoMuSt) as an expansion and complement to the Internet of Musical Things (IoMusT). The transition from IoMusT to IoMuSt entails a critique of blockchain and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) as technologies for allotment, disciplination and regimentation of formerly open and freely accessible artistic web content. In brief, the replacement of the operative concepts constructed around âthingsâ with strategies based on âstuff â highlights the underlying interconnected processes and factors that impact interaction and usage, pointing to resources that become disposable and valueless within an objectified and monetized musical internet. This conceptual and methodological turn allows us to deal with distributed-creativity phenomena in marginalized spaces, highlighting the role of resources that are widely reproducible, fluid and ever-changing. In this paper, we address IoMuSt-based responses to issues such as the artificial production of scarcity associated with the application of NFTs. The selected musical examples showcase the meshwork of dynamic relationships that characterizes ubimus research. In particular, we focus on a comprovisation project involving VOIP visual communication through Skype, Meet and Zoom, a ubimus experience involving a Telegram chatbot and a set of musical experiments enabled by an online tool for remote live patching.