HCTGS v8.0 presents a concept-of-proof architecture for transforming salt lake brine â currently treated as industrial waste or environmental threat â into the primary feedstock for a post-plastic, post-cement, post-titanium material economy. The document establishes magnesium, the lightest structural metal on Earth, as the central output of the HCTGS gravity-driven extraction cascade, deployable across six industrial sectors simultaneously. The global resource base across salt lakes in Tibet (Siling Co, 1,000+ lakes), Chile (Salar de Atacama), Bolivia (Salar de Uyuni), the US Great Basin, East Africa's Rift Valley, Central Asia, and Australia exceeds 4.5 million tonnes of extractable magnesium per year â 4.5Ă current world production, which relies predominantly on energy-intensive thermal reduction processes with a carbon footprint of 25â35 t COâ per tonne. HCTGS brine extraction reduces this carbon footprint by 70â85% and production cost by 40â60%, because magnesium is recovered as a Tier 3 co-product of gravity-driven water and lithium processing â not mined as a standalone commodity. Six application pillars are developed in technical depth: (1) Packaging â Bio-Magnesium (unalloyed Mg-Ca) for single-use items that biodegrade into soil nutrients (Mg(OH)â) within months, replacing 140 million tonnes/year of plastic waste; (2) Medicine â bioresorbable Mg-Ca and Mg-Zn-Ca orthopaedic implants (MAGNEZIXÂź CE-marked 2013, magnesium phosphate cement FDA-approved 2021) that eliminate ~6 million second surgeries per year globally; (3) Transportation â magnesium body structures (AZ91, AM60) reducing EV mass by 30â40%, breaking the mass-battery-mass spiral; (4) Electronics â EMI shielding without halogenated compounds, eliminating dioxin release from e-waste incineration; (5) Construction â historically validated magnesium cements (Sorel 1867, Ming Dynasty oxychloride mortars 14th c., Persian Mg(OH)â waterproofing 2,500 years continuous service, Tibetan MgKPOâ plasters 15th c.) that match or exceed Portland cement strength while absorbing 0.5 kg COâ/kg instead of emitting 0.9 kg COâ/kg; (6) Bio-composites â Mg-Hemp, Mg-Algae, Mg-Chitosan materials that participate in ecosystems rather than contaminating them. (7) Fuel â A thermal cascade closes the last external dependency: Mg-powder from the trichter combusts at 2,500°C driving MgClâ calcination (producing MgO for Sorel cement). Exhaust heat at 300â500°C pre-heats brine to within 6â16°C of the altitude-adjusted boiling point. Solar closes the final gap. One combustion event, three outputs: cement feedstock, process heat, and steam for desalination. The fuel is the product. The fuel's waste is the construction material. The fuel's exhaust is the process energy. Zero fossil input. Zero COâ. Zero import. A dual-track national strategy (60% export, 40% domestic absorption) prevents Dutch disease while building material sovereignty. At full deployment across ten major salt lakes: 18 billion mÂł fresh water/year (50 million people), 180 GW gravity baseload, 500,000 t Mg/year, and 50 million t COâ avoided over 20 years â not through offsets, but through material substitution. The document revives empirical knowledge from Ming Dynasty engineering manuals (ăè„é æłćŒă), Tibetan monastic oral traditions, Sorel's original 1867 patents, and Persian qanat construction, reconnecting them with modern salt lake chemistry through the HCTGS supply chain.
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) plays a critical role in reducing global carbon emissions. However, the end-of-life management of electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) presents significant sustainability and operational challenges. This study proposes a blockchain-based framework that enables full lifecycle tracking of EVBs, from production to disposal or reuse, while addressing issues of transparency, efficiency, and regulatory compliance. The framework incorporates a multi-criteria decision model to guide data-driven end-of-life routingâwhether for second-life reuse or direct recyclingâbased on technical, environmental, and economic indicators. By integrating smart contracts with a hybrid web/mobile platform, the system ensures tamper-proof documentation, stakeholder accountability, and compliance with the EU battery passport regulation. A detailed cost analysis of deploying the framework on Ethereum is also presented. The proposed solution aims to enhance the sustainability of EVB management, reduce environmental impact, and promote circular economy practices within the EV industry.
Karim Moawad, Ahmad Musamih, Assia Chadly, Ahmad Mayyas · 8 authors
The urgency to combat climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions has led to increased global demand for Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. Such batteries are widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles. However, their adoption encounters challenges related to mining ethics, supply chain transparency, sustainability, and waste management. This paper proposes a blockchain-based solution that addresses these challenges in the Li-ion battery supply chain. Using the ERC-721 standard for Non-fungible tokens (NFTs), we tokenize all items/materials in the supply chain, ensuring data management, transparency, and ownership control. We integrate the Ethereum blockchain with the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) to handle NFT metadata and large-sized files, reducing storage costs and network congestion. We develop ten smart contracts (SCs) to facilitate various Li-ion supply chain functionalities, managing items/materials data and ownership. By leveraging NFTs, our solution promotes circular economy principles by facilitating secondary market trading, asset reuse, and sustainable recycling practices. We introduce a structured decision framework that empowers stakeholders to navigate operational and ethical challenges effectively. The effectiveness and practicality of the solution are demonstrated through system architecture, sequence diagrams, algorithms, and testing results. Furthermore, we assess our proposed solutionâs affordability, efficiency, security, and generalizability across different industries.
Karim Moawad, Ammar Hummieda, Ahmad Musamih, Khaled Salah · 5 authors
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become a cornerstone of modern technology, where they serve as the power source for a wide range of applications, including electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems. However, rapid production growth has introduced challenges regarding end-of-life management, particularly with waste disposal, resource recovery, and environmental sustainability. Inefficient recycling often leads to valuable materials like cobalt, lithium, and nickel being discarded in landfills, which exacerbates resource scarcity and poses environmental and health risks. To address these issues, there is a critical need for more efficient, transparent, and accountable systems for the collection, recovery, and recycling of LIBs. In this paper,A blockchain and Non-Fungible Token (NFT)-based solution is proposed to enable circular recycling and material recovery. This system improves transparency, traceability, and accountability throughout the battery lifecycle. The smart contracts (SCs) source code is made publicly available on GitHub.
As a distributed ledger technology, blockchain demonstrates broad prospects in battery recycling due to its decentralized, transparent, and secure characteristics. However, practical implementation faces challenges including technical barriers, cost investments, regulatory adjustments, and data privacy protection. This paper comprehensively introduces blockchain applications in battery recycling, explaining its principles, advantages, and real-world deployment. It analyzes existing problems in current recycling systems, such as data fragmentation, inefficient reverse logistics, and regulatory failures. Furthermore, blockchain-IoT integration applications, including full lifecycle data management, intelligent monitoring, and logistics optimization, are discussed. Innovative business models are proposed, such as decentralized recycling platforms, data-driven frameworks, and sharing economy models. The importance of establishing unified industry standards is emphasized, along with an outlook on future development directions. Through systematic analysis, this study offers insights for researchers and practitioners and serves as a reference for promoting sustainable development in the battery recycling industry.
Abstract: In the closed-loop supply chain management of power batteries for new energy vehicles, there are problems such as insufficient data transparency and traceability, inconsistent data, data tampering or leakage, difficulty in recycling and reusing power batteries, and low efficiency in supply chain management. The purpose of this article is to study how to optimize the management of the closed-loop supply chain of new energy vehicle power batteries based on blockchain technology. The specific goals include improving data transparency and traceability, solving the problem of information silos, enhancing data security, optimizing recycling and reuse mechanisms, and improving management efficiency. It proposed a solution based on blockchain technology, which improved the deficiencies in existing supply chain management through distributed ledgers and smart contracts. After the experiment, it was found that the blockchain-based solution achieved a data consistency of up to 98%, while the processing time also decreased. The research results indicate that blockchain-based supply chain management solutions significantly improve management efficiency and data security, promoting the efficient, secure, and sustainable development of the supply chain.
Zhuowen Chen, Joseph Sarkis, Abdullah YıldızbaĆı
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) circular supply chains (CSCs) present unique safety challenges among operation processes. Blockchain technology can be a promising solution for addressing these challenges, by enabling effective tracking and verification of safety-related information throughout the supply chain. However, how blockchain can mitigate safety issues from a supply chain perspective is poorly understood. This study proposes a theory-supported framework through intervention-based research (IBR) to provide guidance for LIB CSC safety management. The conceptual framework and theoretical propositions set the foundation for research on a comprehensive blockchain ecosystem specifically designed for CSC safety management. The framework includes the design of a blockchain architecture with capabilities tailored to address safety concerns, the involvement of multiple stakeholders, and the development of a safety measurement matrix. This study suggests research and practical directions which lay the groundwork for leveraging blockchain technology to improve safety management in LIB CSC. This research contributes to sustainable supply chains by proposing a conceptual framework for mitigating safety concerns in LIB CSC, paving the way for effective blockchain implementation. In addition, this study contributes to advancing the theoretical design understanding and application of blockchain technology in CSC safety management.
This paper examines the use of blockchain technology in power battery echelon recycling. The technology helps to improve battery capacity identification and market transaction trust. The study focuses on power battery manufacturers and recycling participants. Two recycling modes are constructed using the Stackelberg game method, and the optimal decision-making of the participating subjects in the two modes of power battery echelon recycling under the embedding of blockchain technology is compared. The influence of each parameter on the optimal decision-making is analyzed. The research findings indicate that the degree of blockchain technology integration rises as the preference coefficient for traceability information increases. When recycling competition is intense and the sensitivity of recycling prices is low, the optimal recycling model for the number of spent power batteries (SPBs) to be recycled is the model in which echelon utilizers do not participate in recycling if the level of cost optimization coefficient embedded in blockchain technology is high, otherwise, it is the model in which echelon utilizers participate in recycling. The profit of power battery manufacturers and echelon utilizers decreases with the increase of the intensity of power battery recycling competition, the cost optimization coefficient of echelon utilizers and the cost optimization coefficient of manufacturers.
Maximal Extractable Value (MEV) represents a pivotal challenge within the Ethereum ecosystem; it impacts the fairness, security, and efficiency of both Layer 1 (L1) and Layer 2 (L2) networks. MEV arises when miners or validators manipulate transaction ordering (e.g., front-running) to extract additional value, often at the expense of other network participants. This not only affects user experience by introducing unpredictability and potential financial losses but also threatens the underlying principles of decentralization and trust. Given the growing complexity of blockchain applications, particularly with the increase of Decentralized Finance (DeFi) protocols, it is crucial to address the issue and reduce the impact of MEV. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of MEV mitigation techniques as applied to both Ethereumâs L1 and various L2 solutions. We provide a novel categorization of mitigation strategies. We also describe the challenges, ranging from transaction sequencing and cryptographic methods to reconfiguring decentralized applications (DApps) to reduce front-running opportunities. We investigate their effectiveness, implementation challenges, and impact on network performance. By synthesizing current research, real-world applications, and emerging trends, this paper aims to provide a detailed roadmap for researchers, developers, and policymakers to understand and combat MEV in an evolving blockchain landscape.
Assia Chadly, Haya R. Hasan, Karim Moawad, Khaled Salah · 6 authors
The supply chain of rare earth metals plays a crucial role in producing thin-film solar photovoltaics (PVs), which are vital for renewable energy generation. However, this supply chain is often characterized by opacity, inefficiencies, and security concerns especially since those rare earth metals come from mainly one supplier, China. Also, the solar PVsâ certificates are purely technical and fail to consider the ethical sourcing and sustainable supply chain management conditions of mining. The working conditions of the miners are often neglected and are least prioritized. In this paper, a blockchain-based solution was proposed to leverage the intrinsic decentralized blockchain features including traceability, transparency, non-repudiation, and accountability in the supply chain of thin-film solar PVs, to safeguard not only the technical conditions of the mined products but also the ethical conditions of the workers during mining. Ethical mines must uphold good safety standards, pay their workers a fair wage, adhere to working hours, and legal working age. The solution paves the way to ethical mining where the certification of the PVs is not granted unless both technical and ethical conditions are met. The supply chain of thin-film PVs that goes from mining the rare earth metals in China, where more than 70% of the rare earth metals used are extracted from, to the disposal at the end-of-life (EOL) of the PVs was presented. Smart contracts to enable the on-chain traceability of the registration, manufacturing, assessment, delivery, and disposal of PVs were developed. The solution exploits the tamper-proof logs of the distributed ledger to ensure accountability and record transactions as part of the data provenance. The proposed solution includes a system design with sequence diagrams, smart contracts with algorithms, and a testing and analysis section.
Zhangwei Feng, Na Luo, Timofey Shalpegin, Huan Cui
The new energy vehicle (NEV) is emerging as an important alternative in the automobile industry in its potential to alleviate environmental pollution and contribute to carbon neutrality. The rapid growth of NEVs has been reflected in the scaling up of electric vehicle battery production. The dramatic increase of retired batteries, however, exposes the technological limitations in current recycling operations, which will ultimately impede the sustainable development of the NEV supply chain. Blockchain technology (BT) adoption provides a solution by contributing to the construction of an efficient recycling network. Our research investigates the influence of carbon reduction instruments on the uptake of BT. The key findings are as follows. Under a carbon tax system, (1) carbon emission reduction encourages the battery supplier to adopt BT; (2) BT adoption increases the profits of NEV supply chain stakeholders. Under carbon cap-and-trade regulations, (1) the unit outsourcing fee and the performance of the BT impact the investment decision of the manufacturer; (2) the profit of the third-party enterprise is increased by introducing the BT. Under both policies, improving the efficiency of BT helps to upgrade the traceability level and contribute to carbon neutrality in the NEV supply chain.
Blockchain technology has recently become the go-to solution for companies and industries that seek to enhance value chain traceability of their products, and transparency in their supply chains. Because of these benefits, itâs been proposed for monitoring environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance and compliance in industries that have weak regulatory and formal structures. The cobalt mining industry especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the worldâs biggest producer of cobalt ore used in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries, is one such environment thatâs characterized by conflict, and serious human rights abuses. The key actors in the cobalt supply chain, therefore, face the tradeoff involving maintaining long-term supply versus reducing the risks associated with cobalt sourced from locations with poor environmental and human rights records. Most of such problems emerge from Artisanal and small-scale mining. This paper presents an attempt to tightly link existing blockchain technology frameworks in the cobalt industry with ESG performance of companies to enable them to audit the chain of custody journeys for their components and ultimately sustainability performance. We present a responsible sourcing framework to connect blockchain source data needs to ESG metrics to help companies build interoperable but understandable blockchain architectures.