Blockchain Papers

Jamal Hussain Arman, Fazal Muhammad, Muhammad Abdullah, Adil Zulfiqar

No abstract is available for this record.

Sukhwinder Kaur Manpreet Kaur*

The metaverse is emerging as a persistent and immersive digital environment that combines extended reality, cloud edge computing, artificial intelligence, big data analytics, digital twins, blockchain, and future wireless connectivity. However, real time metaverse services require ultra low latency, high data rates, context aware intelligence, scalable cloud infrastructure, and trustworthy data governance. This paper presents a PRISMA informed systematic review of AI driven cloud and 6G enabled metaverse research with special attention to big data analytics, security, privacy, and digital trust. A structured search strategy was designed across major scholarly databases and citation snowballing sources, and 45 studies were selected for qualitative synthesis. The review classifies the literature into six themes: AI and real time analytics, cloud edge device orchestration, 6G connectivity, metaverse security, privacy preserving mechanisms, and digital trust governance. The findings show that 6G and edge intelligence can support immersive metaverse services through sub millisecond interaction, distributed rendering, semantic communication, integrated sensing, and adaptive resource allocation. At the same time, the literature reveals open challenges involving identity management, biometric privacy, adversarial AI, cross platform interoperability, data provenance, and user trust. The paper concludes with a conference oriented research agenda for trustworthy AI cloud 6G metaverse systems.

Maryam Almarwani, Reem Almarwani

Sixth-generation (6G) networks are expected to provide ubiquitous connectivity, AI-native orchestration, and seamless integration across terrestrial and non-terrestrial infrastructures. However, these capabilities introduce new privacy challenges related to the classification and protection of personal, quasi-personal, and non-personal data in complex data-driven environments. This paper presents a systematic review of 78 peer-reviewed studies published between 2019 and 2025. Following a PRISMA-based methodology, this review analyzes privacy-enhancing technologies (PETs), regulatory compliance frameworks, and architectural patterns for privacy preservation in 6G networks. The findings show that differential privacy (DP) and federated learning (FL) dominate current research, accounting for nearly 52% of the reviewed studies. Blockchain auditing and zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) collectively represent approximately 30%, while the remaining mechanisms, including physical-layer security (PLS), trusted execution environments (TEEs), homomorphic encryption (HE), secure multi-party computation (SMPC), and anonymization, account for roughly 18%. These mechanisms exhibit varying levels of privacy strength, utility preservation, latency, and energy cost. At the same time, evolving regulatory frameworks, including GDPR, PDPL, CCPA/CPRA, LGPD, and PIPL, increasingly extend privacy obligations to quasi-personal and aggregated data. Building on these findings, this paper proposes a unified taxonomy that clarifies the boundary between personal and non-personal data. It also provides a cross-layer mapping between PETs and compliance requirements across the Core/SBA, RAN, Edge/MEC, and NTN layers. Finally, this paper presents a forward-looking roadmap for 2025–2030, highlighting hybrid PET pipelines, post-quantum auditability, and AI-driven compliance automation as key directions for privacy-preserving 6G standardization.

R. N. Ravikumar, S. Aarthi

The integration of Blockchain and Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS) offers a secure, transparent, and high-performance foundation for 6G-enabled V2X communication. This chapter explores how blockchain's decentralized trust, immutable records, and smart contracts complement RIS-enabled wireless optimization to enhance signal reliability, reduce latency, and prevent tampering in dynamic vehicular environments. The proposed framework strengthens authentication, data integrity, and trust management while supporting advanced applications such as secure platooning and decentralized vehicular data marketplaces. Key challenges related to scalability, energy efficiency, and interoperability are examined, along with future prospects involving AI-driven optimization, post-quantum security, and autonomous RIS-blockchain coordination. Overall, the chapter demonstrates how merging programmable wireless control with distributed ledgers enables resilient and trustworthy next-generation mobility.

Muhammad Asad, Aurora Paz-Pérez, F. Sánchez, Carlos Núñez-Gómez · 12 authors

As the limitations of the current cellular network generation have become apparent to tackle current connectivity needs in 6G, the scientific communities have started to investigate novel techniques to bolster the capabilities of the communication infrastructure. Within 6G, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) are envisioned as key enablers to drive network performance and guarantee process integrity. However, from a security standpoint, those methods are dual-edged as they introduce a new threat surface that could be used to jeopardise the platform security, the trust in service utility and data privacy. This survey provides a consolidated review of the security, trust, and privacy impact of key 6G enabling technologies. The analysis begins by identifying the primary architectural drivers anticipated for next-generation mobile networks, systematically mapping their impact on the threat surface to identify critical resilience challenges. Conversely, we pinpoint protection methodologies enacted by these drivers, outlining concrete countermeasures that enhance the network’s security posture. Finally, we propose a unified reference architecture that integrates these benefits for holistic security, privacy, and trust management, complemented by a system-level evaluation.

John M. Owen

The advent of next-generation networks, epitomized by Sixth-Generation (6G) wireless systems, signifies a paradigm shift from the simplistic goal of connectivity to a complex ecosystem defined by the convergence of the physical, digital, and biological worlds. This transition, characterized by hyper-density, extreme heterogeneity, and the integration of novel paradigms like terahertz (THz) communications, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS), and non-terrestrial networks (NTN), fundamentally invalidates many of the security assumptions of previous generations. The very characteristics that enable unprecedented data rates, ultra-low latency, and massive machine-type communications—such as massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO), distributed ledger technologies, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven network slicing—also expand the attack surface, introducing novel vulnerabilities ranging from intelligent jamming and eavesdropping in the physical layer to sophisticated adversarial attacks on AI-based network management functions. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of secure transmission techniques designed for this nascent landscape. It moves beyond the traditional paradigm of cryptography-as-an-overlay to advocate for a holistic, interdisciplinary approach where security is embedded as a foundational property across all protocol layers. The discussion commences with a critical re-evaluation of the evolving threat landscape, identifying key vulnerabilities unique to next-generation architectures. Subsequently, it delves into advanced physical layer security (PLS) techniques, demonstrating how the intrinsic randomness of the wireless channel can be leveraged for secret key generation and covert communications, particularly in the context of massive MIMO and THz bands. The narrative then transitions to the cryptographic layer, examining the imperative shift towards post-quantum cryptography (PQC) to counter the looming threat of quantum decryption, alongside the role of blockchain and distributed ledgers in establishing decentralized trust in a network devoid of fixed infrastructure. A significant portion of the article is dedicated to AI-native security, exploring both the potential of AI to create autonomous, self-healing security mechanisms and the critical vulnerabilities introduced by adversarial machine learning. The analysis culminates in an examination of securing the network’s foundational pillars, including the integrity of network slicing, the resilience of the Radio Access Network (RAN), and the security of non-terrestrial components. This article concludes that the security of next-generation networks is not merely a technical challenge but a foundational requirement for the socio-economic viability of a hyper-connected future, necessitating a continuous, adaptive, and unified security architecture that evolves in lockstep with the network itself.

L Blanco, Cristian J. Vaca-Rubio, Jorge Baranda, Farhana Javed · 40 authors

UNITY-6G introduces a AI-natively framework that unifies terrestrial (TN), non-terrestrial (NTN), and non-public networks (NPN), treating connectivity, computing, and intelligence as interdependent resources. The architecture utilizes an Inter-Domain Management Orchestrator (IDMO) based on Service-Based Management Architecture (SBMA) principles to coordinate services across heterogeneous domains. A core pillar of the framework is its AI-native design through autonomous agentic AI workflows following a standardized MS–AE–DE–ACT (Monitoring, Analytics, Decision, and Actuation) logical patterns. To enhance resource efficiency and sustainability, the architecture integrates Digital Twins (DT) for proactive system modeling and semantic communications to prioritize task-relevant information transfer. Security is addressed through a Trust Architecture leveraging Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) for cross-domain auditability. The framework's utility is validated through proof-of-concepts targeting sustainable disaster handling, immersive XR/holographic communications, and time-sensitive services for Industry 4.0. The presented advances establish a foundation for the continuous development of high-performance, autonomous 6G systems.

Ramesh Kumar, Joy Dutta, M. Vamsi, Uma Sankararao Varri · 5 authors

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into sixth-generation (6G) networks is a foundational requirement for achieving unprecedented performance, but it also introduces a sophisticated threat landscape that legacy security frameworks cannot address. This paper presents a comprehensive review of this dual role of AI, analyzing its potential to both compromise and safeguard future networks. Since AI has the ability to both protect and compromise security and privacy, its implementation with 6G technology may sometimes be a double-edged sword. The primary objective of this survey is to systematically analyze existing research that integrates AI techniques into 6G architectures, focusing on their implications for security and privacy. Among the concerns being investigated is the fundamental privacy and security risk associated with 6G technologies. Therefore, in order to incorporate and confirm this foundational research as a platform for future research, we have developed a review on the specifics of 6G security and privacy. The methodology involves reviewing recent academic and industrial studies related to AI-enabled 6G frameworks, threat models, and defense mechanisms, with an emphasis on how AI contributes to intrusion detection, authentication, and privacy preservation. This paper begins with a historical analysis of previous networking technologies and how they impacted contemporary 6G networking improvements. Therefore, this article discusses extensively the aspects that have rendered 6G technology relevant as well as the ongoing 6G-based projects. In addition, it identifies and critically evaluates key enabling technologies, including distributed ledger technology (DLT/blockchain), physical layer security (PLS), terahertz (THz) communication, quantum computing, visible light communication (VLC), and distributed AI/ML, that underpin secure 6G environments. The paper concludes by summarizing open challenges, future research opportunities, and potential pathways for building trustworthy AI-driven 6G systems.

Fangfang Shan, Lulu Fan, Yuhang Liu, Yifan Mao · 6 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Rodrigo Dutra Garcia, Gowri Ramachandran, Christian Esteve Rothenberg, Daniel Macêdo Batista · 5 authors

The transition to 6G networks is expected to support a broader range of user-centric applications. As these applications expand, Quality of Experience (QoE) has emerged as a key metric for evaluating user satisfaction. However, the use of centralized systems lacks transparency and limits users’ ability to govern their data usage. It also introduces challenges in managing QoE data while preserving privacy. At the same time, verification mechanisms are needed that allow regulators to evaluate compliance without exposing confidential business information. To address this, we propose a decentralized, privacy-preserving QoE system that integrates blockchain with fully homomorphic encryption (FHE). This design enables transparent evaluations between users and service providers by supporting computations directly on encrypted data, ensuring that all information remains protected throughout the process. Users contribute QoE metrics through a decentralized infrastructure and retain control over their data. Regulators can monitor compliance without accessing raw data, and service providers can use encrypted QoE data to perform privacy-preserving computations via smart contracts without relying on a central authority. We developed a proof-of-concept integrating FHE smart contracts compatible with Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) blockchains and evaluated their performance using a video streaming dataset. Our results show that encryption and FHE operations consistently occur within milliseconds when tested in a local environment. We also evaluated these operations on a public blockchain testnet. In this setting, our system adds a millisecond-scale delay while supporting privacy-preserving computations directly on encrypted user data.

Elham Hashemi Nezhad, Antonio Di Maio, Torsten Braun

The orchestrators’ deployment problem presents numerous challenges in 6G Network Radio Access Networks due to their large-scale, dynamic conditions, and variable user demands. Most works propose single- or hierarchical-orchestrator solutions, which offer poor resiliency, high signaling overhead, and slow adaptation to variable network dynamics. To tackle these challenges, we propose an online, data-driven, fully decentralized, Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL)-based, self-organization orchestrator deployment system for 6G networks, which jointly optimizes the tradeoff between user throughput and fairness, based on time-varying system conditions. In the proposed approach, a flexible variable number of decentralized, cooperative, peer self-organization agents autonomously adapt their associated orchestrator’s deployment location and activity to optimize network operation, without requiring centralized coordination. Simulations show improvements of up to 77% in user throughput compared to Hierarchical and Single Orchestrator baselines in a broad range of realistic scenarios.

G. Sajiv, N. Meenakshisundaram

The rapid evolution of $\mathbf{6 G}$ communication systems demands artificial intelligence (AI) solutions that are not only adaptive and explainable but also secure and compliant with international standards. A major challenge lies in achieving transparency and regulatory compliance in federated wireless environments while ensuring data privacy and performance. This research introduces a novel architecture that integrates auditable Federated Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) with explainability frameworks such as SHAP and LIME, supported by a blockchain layer for immutable audit trails and traceable AI decisions across distributed nodes. Smart contracts are employed to enable dynamic policy enforcement and fine-grained access control. The framework is aligned with 3 GPP, ITU-T, and IEEE standards, making it suitable for compliance-driven deployments. Experimental evaluation demonstrates that the proposed architecture enhances model interpretability by up to $81 \%$, reduces security risks through blockchain-based auditing, and maintains competitive performance in key 6 G use cases such as intelligent beamforming, dynamic spectrum allocation, and edge device authentication. The findings confirm that compliant, explainable, and secure AI can be achieved in next-generation wireless networks without compromising efficiency or user trust.

R. Yuvarani, R Mahaveerakannan, T. Tamilvizhi, L Kartheesan

The integration of blockchain into 6G-enabled Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) networks promises secure and decentralized communication but introduces challenges related to energy efficiency, latency, and authentication overhead. Existing clustering and security schemes fail to balance these aspects effectively in heterogeneous networks. This paper proposes a novel energy-aware cluster head (CH) selection framework using Artificial Democratic Cuckoo Glowworm Remora Optimization (ADCGRO), integrated with a lightweight blockchain layer for secure authentication and data integrity. The system optimizes task allocation across advanced, intermediate, and normal IoMT devices to minimize energy depletion while meeting ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) requirements. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed approach enhances network lifetime by 27%, reduces average latency by 35%, and achieves 99% authentication accuracy, surpassing baseline protocols such as LEACH and HEED. These results highlight the effectiveness of combining ADCGRO-based optimization with blockchain to enhance performance and security in 6G wireless networks.

Inam Ullah, Ali Arishi, Sushil Kumar Singh, Faisal Alharbi · 8 authors

The rapid advancement of 6G communication networks presents both considerable problems and opportunities in network management, necessitating sophisticated solutions that extend beyond conventional methods. This study seeks to investigate and evaluate autonomous network management solutions designed for 6G communication networks, highlighting their technical advantages and potential implications. We examine the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and network automation in facilitating self-organization, optimization, and decision-making within critical network domains, including spectrum management, traffic load balancing, fault detection, and security and privacy. We examine the integration of edge computing and Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT), specifically blockchain, to improve trust, transparency, and security in autonomous networks. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the technological developments driving fully autonomous, efficient, and resilient 6G network infrastructures by methodically analyzing existing methodologies, identifying significant research gaps, and exploring potential prospects. The results offer significant insights for researchers, engineers, and industry experts involved in the development and deployment of advanced autonomous network management systems.

Rajat Kumar, Shivansh Mittal, C.P. Thakur, Tejinder Pal Singh Brar

Research on sixth-generation (6G) wireless communications has been formally started globally in order to construct future mobile communication networks. 6G networks must overcome a number of issues, such as resourcedemanding mobile devices, difficult wireless resource control, and highly complex network architectures, quickly rising processing and storage requirements, and security and privacy risks. To solve these problems, the implementation of blockchain technology and artificial intelligence (AI) in 6G networks may provide up-to-the-minute insights into how to enhance network quality of services in terms of competency, safety, integrity, expenses, and rife. Distributed ledger technology, often known as blockchain, is one of the most ground-breaking technological developments that can enable the operable standards of the Sixth Generation while also resolving the majority of the persistent limitations. In this paper, we examine potential research areas, upcoming application prospects, and how blockchain might be utilized to address the unresolved issues related to 6G.

Alfonso Egio, Álvaro Le Monnier, Muhammad Asad, Maxime Compastié · 5 authors

As the sixth generation of the cellular network is set to be deployed around 2030, the needs for ubiquitous connectivity and increased resource demand will press for further collaboration between different stakeholders to constitute an efficient and resilient network fabric. In practice, the deployment of multiple network slices in multiple domains is one of the promising approaches to reach this vision. However, from a privacy standpoint, this introduces additional risks for the customers, as a malicious slice may contemplate the impersonation of a legit one for exfiltrating network traffic. It is therefore necessary to proceed with slice identification and authentication to prevent any collaboration with a non-legit network domain while avoiding exchanging sensitive data before authentication. In response to this challenge, this paper presents a privacy-preserving authentication framework for inter-slice communication. The framework integrates Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) for privacy-preserving authentication and Public Key Cryptography (PKC) for secure identity management, ensuring that no sensitive information is jeopardized before a slice can be trusted. We expose an implementation prototype and evaluate it in controlled slicing environment, demonstrating its ability to maintain performance under varying operational constraints. Quantitative results highlight the efficiency limited resource consumption of the authentication model, its scalability in distributed environments, and robustness against security threats.

Mamoon M. Saeed, Rashid A. Saeed, Mohammad Kamrul Hasan, Elmustafa Sayed Ali · 8 authors

After adopting 5G technology, businesses and academia have started working on sixth-generation wireless networking (6G) technologies. Mobile communications options are expected to expand in areas where previous generations could not do so. 6G networks are anticipated to be constructed using various diverse technologies. These encompass diverse cutting-edge advancements, such as distributed ledger systems like blockchain, visible light communications (VLC), post-quantum cryptography, edge computing, molecular communication, THz, and other advances. These advances necessitate a reassessment of previous security strategies from a security perspective. In the future, networks must adhere to stricter criteria for authentication, encryption, access control, connectivity, and detection of harmful activities. Ensuring privacy and dependability necessitates the implementation of supplementary security protocols. The essay explores the primary concerns and challenges related to the security of the 6G network. This paper describes the improvements in security in communications from 1G through 6G. This paper divides security in the sixth generation into three layers: physical, connection, and service. Each layer-by-layer discusses the standard technologies and security issues for each technology proposed in each sixth-generation security layer. All proposed solutions for each of the three layers are discussed in Sixth Generation Security. It also reviews all proposed solutions for each layer, indicating the proposed solution and its limitations.

P. Selvaraj, A. Hyils Sharon Magdalene, Suresh Sankaranarayanan, Alias Muralidharan R. Rengaraj · 7 authors

This work designs a novel algorithm to address the pressing security challenges anticipated in 6G networks. A combination of AES, zero-knowledge proofs, and RSA algorithms offers a robust framework for enhancing data security and privacy in advanced wireless communication systems. AES and RSA, renowned for their encryption capabilities, are integrated for secure data transmission and key exchange processes in 6G networks. Moreover, the incorporation of zero-knowledge proofs adds an additional layer of security, allowing entities to validate their knowledge without compromising sensitive information. Through extensive simulations and analyses, the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm to ensure secure communication within 6G networks is demonstrated. The algorithm is able to reduce security threats and vulnerabilities. This research lays the groundwork for the development of resilient and trustworthy next-generation communication infrastructures. Finally, the integration of AES, RSA, and zero-knowledge proofs presents a favorable approach to strengthen data security in 6G networks, paving the way for more reliable and secure wireless communication technologies in the future.

Vidas Sileikis, Wei Wang

Future generations of wireless networks at high-frequency spectrum suffer from limited coverage and Non-Line- of-Sight signal blockage, challenging emerging applications, such as smart industries and intelligent automation systems. Collaborative and cooperative communications with smart relays via Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) could be a breakthrough solution to this challenge. This paper presents a blockchain-integrated framework for NOMA wireless communication systems that incentivizes cooperation among users serving as relays. By leveraging Ethereum-based smart contracts, we introduce a Service Verification Contract featuring a Proof of Quality of Experience (PQoE) mechanism. The contract uses trust scores, weighted verifications, and dynamic validation thresholds to ensure honest behavior and deter malicious activities. The simulation results show that honest participants gradually increase their trust scores and require fewer verifications, while malicious verifiers lose influence over repeated rounds. Our findings indicate that combining trust-based incentives with a decentralized ledger can effectively promote reliable data-relaying services and streamline payment processes in collaborative and smart wireless networking systems.

Kranthi Kumar Singamaneni, Anil Kumar Budati, Raenu Kolandaisamy, Vijaya Saradhi Dommeti · 5 authors

The advent of 6G networks places very high demands on ultra-low latency, high throughput, and quantum-secure communication to power Industry 5.0 use cases. Traditional blockchain architectures, given their decentralized and secure nature, often fall short in meeting the performance and security requirements of such an ecosystem. In this paper, we present a post-quantum blockchain architecture that employs CRYSTALS-Dilithium and SPHINCS+ for digital signatures and block and transaction verification, respectively, along with zk-STARKs to facilitate scalable zero-knowledge proof-based privacy, and a DPoS+VDFs consensus protocol to satisfy fairness and efficiency. We prototyped and evaluated the proposed framework with a benchmarking setup composed of Python, PQClean, liboqs, and Google Benchmark tools. Experimental results demonstrate that the system achieves a 40% reduction in latency, a 35% increase in transaction throughput, and a 25% reduction in computational overhead due to the integration of zk-STARK. Furthermore, finality time for consensus was reduced by 30% by using the hybrid DPoS-VDF consensus approach. Comparative studies with various lattice-, hash-, and code-based quantum cryptographic primitives have shown that CRYSTALS-Dilithium and SPHINCS+ outperform others in key generation, signing, and verification performance indicators, and thus qualify as optimal solutions for edge-centric 6G infrastructures. Conversely, zk-Starks showed near-optimal timeliness and verification effectiveness among the several examined zero-knowledge proof schemes. These findings validate the proposed framework as an efficient, scalable, and performance-enhanced blockchain solution for securing industrial ecosystems with latency sensitivity in a 6G-enabled environment.

Asim Ul Haq, Seyed Salar Sefati, Syed Junaid Nawaz, Albena Mihovska · 5 authors

Recent revolutionary advancements in the services as observed with the use cases of Industry 5.0, consumer electronics 2.0/smart devices 2.0, digital healthcare ecosystem, Internet-of-Things (IoT), advanced digital finance/currency, and Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) expansion, to name a few, have resulted in a spectacular growth in the number of wireless-connected devices. Subsequently, this has drastically increased the demands for network capacity, channel capacity, reliability, privacy, and security provisions. Despite that, the 5 th Generation (5G) of wireless communication networks has introduced various innovative services such as Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLCs), Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTCs), and Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB). These services only support isolated operations and the requisite reliable service delivery remains a challenge. The Beyond 5G (B5G)/6 th Generation (6G) wireless networks aim at simultaneously providing multiple integrated services through intelligent network operations with ultra-high speed and reliability supporting integrated NTN and terrestrial networks. However, the prospect of such an extensively connected decentralized 3D wireless network also foresees security concerns, underscoring the necessity for seamless and infrastructurefree (decentralized) security solutions. The conventional security mechanisms are considered inadequate to ensure the security provisions of such extensive, decentralized, and heterogeneous networks. Physical Layer Security (PLS) is a promising technique to extend seamless and infrastructure-less security solutions, ensuring the availability, confidentiality, and integrity of legitimate transmissions. This paper provides a comprehensive overview with tutorials and presents the state-of-the-art of PLS, focusing mainly on NTN wireless communications. Furthermore, current research challenges, open issues, and future research directions are also thoroughly discussed in an amalgamation of various emerging 6G technologies. Finally, we provide an overview of implementation challenges in NTN and potential solutions to support the standardization progression of NTN in upcoming releases of 3 rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).

Nassmah Y. Al-Matari, Ammar T. Zahary, Asma A. Al-Shargabi

The emergence of 6G cognitive radio IoT networks introduces both opportunities and complexities in spectrum access and security. Blockchain technology has emerged as a viable solution to address these challenges, offering enhanced security, transparency, and efficiency in spectrum management. This survey paper offers a thorough analysis of recent advancements in blockchain-enabled security mechanisms specifically for spectrum access within 6G cognitive radio IoT networks. Covering literature from 2019 to the present, the paper highlights significant contributions and developments in integrating blockchain technology with cognitive radio and IoT systems. It reviews spectrum access security and shows how blockchain's decentralized approach can solve related issues. Key areas of focus include secure authentication systems, tamper-resistant spectrum sensing, decentralized databases, and smart contracts for spectrum management. The paper also addresses ongoing challenges like interoperability, scalability, and the need for comprehensive security frameworks. Future research directions are proposed, emphasizing the development of advanced blockchain protocols, integration with machine learning, and addressing regulatory and standardization concerns. This paper provides valuable insights for researchers and practitioners aiming to leverage blockchain technology, alongside ML/AI, to enhance security and efficiency in next-generation cognitive radio IoT networks.

Zhixian Zhou, Binbin Chen, Chen Sun, Peichang Zhang · 5 authors

Dynamic Spectrum Sharing can enhance spectrum resource utilization by promoting the dynamic distribution of spectrum resources. However, to effectively implement dynamic spectrum resource allocation, certain mechanisms are needed to incentivize primary users to proactively share their spectrum resources. This paper, based on the ERC404 standard and integrating Non-Fungible Token and Fungible Token technologies, proposes a spectrum securitization model to incentivize spectrum resource sharing and implements it on the Ethereum test net.

Vaios Bolgouras, Aristeidis Farao, Christos Xenakis

The evolution toward sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication networks introduces unparalleled opportunities, alongside complex security and privacy challenges. This paper presents a broad and flexible roadmap for securing 6G networks, exploring the diverse range of threats posed by advanced technologies such as Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), quantum computing, and AI/ML. Rather than focusing on a singular problem or solution, the paper emphasizes the need for adaptable frameworks capable of addressing the multifaceted and evolving security landscape of 6G. Key areas of focus include quantum-safe cryptography, AI-based threat detection, and privacy-preserving technologies like homomorphic encryption and federated learning. The paper also underscores the critical role of standardization efforts by key organizations such as ETSI, ITU, and 3GPP in shaping secure, resilient, and trustworthy 6G networks. By maintaining a general perspective, this roadmap offers a foundation for future research and collaboration, guiding the development of context-specific security solutions as 6G technology advances.