Jiacheng Yang, Yongxin Zhang, Hong Lei, Zijian Bao ¡ 6 authors
In the process of integrating the digital economy with the real economy, a vast and diverse supply of data has emerged. Among these, the exponential growth of data in vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) hold immense commercial value. This further drives the demand for building large-scale data marketing platforms to support trading between vehicles and businesses in order to reduce the cost of local management. However, this must address several challenges related to security and performance, such as fairness, privacy protection, and data delivery efficiency. Therefore, this paper proposes a privacy-preserving large-scale data marketing system (PLDM), aiming to address these challenges. Specifically, this solution is based on blockchain to build a decentralized trusted third party to ensure the fairness of the trading process. In addition, we combine the$\Sigma$-protocol and Merkle tree to prove the validity of both the encryption of data to be traded and the identities of the trading participants. This not only achieves privacy protection for data and identities but also reduces the computational costs for vehicles. We provide the security analysis and experimental evaluation ofPLDM. And the results show thatPLDMperforms well in fairness and privacy protection, supporting efficient delivery of large-scale data and low on-chain computational costs.
Ahmad Mutahhar, Tariq Jamil Saifullah Khanzada, Muhammad Farrukh Shahid
Large-scale events, such as festivals and public gatherings, pose serious problems in terms of traffic congestion, slow transaction processing, and security risks to transportation planning. This study proposes a blockchain-based solution for enhancing the efficiency and security of intelligent transport systems (ITS) by utilizing state channels and rollups. Throughput is optimized, enabling transaction speeds of 800 to 3500 transactions per second (TPS) and delays of 5 to 1.5 s. Prevent data tampering, strengthen security, and enhance data integrity from 89% to 99.999%, as well as encryption efficacy from 90% to 98%. Furthermore, our system reduces congestion, optimizes vehicle movement, and shares real-time, secure data with stakeholders. Practical applications include fast and safe road toll payments, faster public transit ticketing, improved emergency response coordination, and enhanced urban mobility. The decentralized blockchain helps maintain trust among users, transportation authorities, and event organizers. Our approach extends beyond large-scale events and proposes a path toward ubiquitous, Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven decision-making in a broader urban transit network, informing future operations in dynamic traffic optimization. This study demonstrates the potential of blockchain to create more intelligent, more secure, and scalable transportation systems, which will help reduce urban mobility inefficiencies and contribute to the development of resilient smart cities.
Sergej GriÄar, Christian StipanoviÄ, Tea Baldigara
As climate change concerns, urban congestion, and environmental degradation intensify, cities prioritise cycling as a sustainable transport option to reduce CO2 emissions and improve quality of life. However, rampant bicycle theft and poor security infrastructure often deter daily commuters and tourists from cycling. This study explores how advanced security measures can bolster sustainable urban mobility and tourism by addressing these challenges. A mixed-methods approach is utilised, incorporating primary survey data from Slovenia and secondary data on bicycle sales, imports and thefts from 2015 to 2024. Findings indicate that access to secure parking substantially enhances usersâ sense of safety when commuting by bike. Regression analysis shows that for every 1000 additional bicycles sold, approximately 280 more thefts occurâequivalent to a 0.28 rise in reported theftsâhighlighting a systemic vulnerability associated with sustainability-oriented behaviour. To bridge this gap, the study advocates for an innovative security framework that combines blockchain technology and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) with encrypted Quick Response (QR) codes. Each bicycle would receive a tamper-proof QR code connected to a blockchain-verified NFT documenting ownership and usage data. This system facilitates real-time authentication, enhances traceability, deters theft, and builds trust in cycling as a dependable transport alternative. The proposed solution merges sustainable transport, digital identity, and urban security, presenting a scalable model for individual users and shared mobility systems.
Divyanshu Pabia, Manasvi Rao Kanukolan, A. Anbarasi
Conventional FASTag and similar tolling networks rely on centralized clearinghouses that invite insider fraud, introduce single points of failure, and expose motoristsâ movement data. This paper presents a fully decentralized architecture that migrates the entire transaction path-RFID tag detection, tariff computation, signature-verified debit, and final settlement-onto Ethereum via the ERC-4337 account-abstraction standard. Per-vehicle smart-contract wallets are deterministically generated from each vehicle identifier and execute an atomic UserOperation, producing an immutable audit trail while eliminating custodial databases. Anonymous authentication is achieved through a Groth16 zero-knowledge circuit derived from Anon-Aadhaar, which discloses only a one-time nullifier, thereby preventing replay attacks and preserving user privacy. A protocol-compliant Paymaster contract sponsors gas, enabling âtap-and-goâ usability without requiring drivers to hold cryptocurrency. Existing UHF RFID hardware and EPC Gen-2 slotted-ALOHA anti-collision logic is preserved; scan events are simply notarized on-chain, rendering tampering computationally infeasible. By fusing account abstraction, zk-SNARK-based anonymous verification, and gas-sponsored execution, the proposed framework delivers a tamper-proof, privacy-preserving, and outage-resilient tolling solutionmodernizing infrastructure without imposing additional financial or technical burdens on motorists or operators.
Ensuring secure and efficient authentication in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) is vital for real-time communication and network resilience. However, traditional authentication mechanisms, such as Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), face significant challenges, including high computational overhead, complex certificate revocation, and vulnerability to quantum attacks. To overcome these limitations, we propose a lattice-based authentication protocol that integrates post-quantum cryptography (PQC), zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), and fog computing for secure Vehicle-to-Roadside (V2R) communication. Our protocol offers quantum resistance, decentralized authentication, and dynamic pseudonym updates, enhancing both security and privacy in VANETs. Performance evaluations demonstrate that our approach achieves lower message delay (0.8), reduced packet loss ratio (0.6), minimal communication overhead (0.7), and the fastest authentication delay (0.5) compared to ECC and Physically Unclonable Function (PUF)-based methods. Additionally, formal security analysis confirms that our scheme effectively mitigates impersonation, replay, tracking, and quantum attacks, ensuring a scalable and future-proof authentication mechanism for next-generation VANETs.
With the widespread application of Transportation Cyber Physical Systems (T-CPS), increasingly intelligent and interconnected vehicles are conducting extensive transportation activities. Compared with traditional transportation equipment, they integrate advanced information functions such as data collection, terminal communication, real-time computing, and remote coordination, which can generate and collect a large amount of real traffic data. The enormous value of these traffic data can be released through market-oriented transactions. Blockchain technology can support the transmission and collaborative control of information T-CPS, while protecting the privacy and data security of intelligent connected vehicles. This article proposes a blockchain based data trading system aimed at simplifying the transaction flow of traffic data for intelligent connected vehicle owners, while maintaining fairness, privacy, and sustainable market development. Our work introduces two key innovations: a two-stage availability verification process that reduces transaction costs while enhancing data reliability, and an efficient encryption confirmation mechanism that ensures privacy and security for data providers and buyers throughout the entire transaction lifecycle. Finally, we demonstrate the feasibility and overall performance of our system through comprehensive analysis including security and reliability assessment, market behavior analysis, and computational complexity modeling, as well as practical experiments based on the Ethereum blockchain network. The evaluation results indicate that this scheme can provide privacy and security data transaction services at lower transaction costs.
Ridesharing and on-demand mobility systems offer societal benefits that include reduced traffic, lower parking demand and less environmental impact from vehicle usage. However, the problem of user impersonation has compromised the safety of both riders and drivers, sometimes ending in fatal tragedy. To address the safety concerns resulting from user impersonation, this paper proposes a blockchain-based and zero-knowledge approach for decentralized and privacy-preserving identity verification in ridesharing. The proposed permissioned blockchain facilitates our privacy-aware verification scheme and provides fine-grained access control policies to protect on-chain trip records. We developed the proposed system on the Hyperledger Fabric platform, with Chaincode smart contracts and Hyperledger Ursa cryptographic library. To measure the performance of the system, we conduct extensive experiments utilizing the Hyperledger Caliper benchmark tool. Our results show that the zero-knowledge proof module can perform the privacy-preserving identity verification at the millisecond level while the blockchain network offers low latency and high throughput for transactions. The non-resource-intensive authentication scheme and the proposed secure-by-design blockchain with access control policies make the proposed approach fitting for application in real-world ridesharing environments.
With the rapid adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and the increasing need for Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) electricity trading, ensuring privacy, security, and efficiency in decentralized transactions remains a critical challenge. Existing solutions face vulnerabilities such as identity exposure, high computational costs, and inefficiencies in consensus mechanisms. To address these issues, this paper proposes a Novel Hybrid IntelligenceDriven Blockchain Framework for Secure and Efficient V2V Electricity Trading in the Internet of Vehicles (IoV). The framework integrates a hybrid privacy-preserving mechanism utilizing a dual-layer dynamic pseudo-identity system and certificateless aggregate signcryption to enhance transactional privacy while enabling fraudulent activity traceability. Additionally, a multilayered blockchain architecture leveraging digital twins, edge computing, and decentralized storage optimizes transaction verification and reduces latency. A novel Hybrid Reinforcement Learning-based Proof-of-Reputation and Adaptive Stake (HRLPoRAS) consensus mechanism is designed, dynamically adjusting validation participation based on EV reputation scores, stake levels, and environmental factors, ensuring scalability and energy efficiency. Furthermore, a Deep Q-Network and MultiAgent Deep RL (DQN-MADRL) hybrid optimization strategy is introduced to enhance smart contract execution and relay selection, minimizing computational overhead while maintaining network resilience. Performance evaluations demonstrate that the proposed framework significantly improves privacy protection, reduces communication overhead, and enhances transaction throughput compared to existing blockchain-based V2V electricity trading schemes. This work contributes to the development of a highly scalable, intelligent, and secure electricity trading system for the future IoV ecosystem.
The emerging paradigm of modern vehicles as sophisticated mobile data centers generates unprecedented volumes of telemetry, sensor, and interaction data that require novel management approaches. The architectural framework addresses dual requirements of edge processing for latency-sensitive applications and cloud infrastructure for deeper analytics and model development. Vehicle-to-everything communication protocols integrate with software-defined networks and distributed ledger technologies to ensure secure, efficient data exchange across the ecosystem. Technical challenges including bandwidth constraints, data redundancy, and privacy regulations are primary motivators for solutions based on federated learning, optimized compression algorithms, and context-aware processing. Resilient vehicular data management necessitates a multi-layered approach balancing computational requirements across the edge-cloud continuum while maintaining robust security postures. These foundations enable scaling next-generation intelligent transportation systems were vehicles function as key nodes in broader smart city infrastructures.
NaiâWei Lo, Chi-Ying Chuang, Jheng-Jia Huang, Yuxuan Luo
With the rise of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV), secure and efficient authentication is essential to prevent cyber threats. This paper proposes a session key establishment protocol using Zero-Knowledge Proofs (zk-SNARKs) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), including the Elliptic Curve DiffieâHellman (ECDH) key exchange, to ensure privacy and efficiency. While zk-SNARK computations introduce additional verification overhead, our optimizations, such as precomputed proof parameters and lightweight session re-authentication, mitigate delays. Performance evaluation shows a 20% reduction in computation overhead and a 75% faster re-authentication time compared to existing methods, making it a secure and practical solution for real-world IoV applications.
R Boopathi, P. Ramakrishnan, M. Jamuna Rani, Pandi Vijayakumar ¡ 6 authors
With Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs) now integrated into intelligent transportation systems, obtaining critical security and trust in such environments where vehicles often exchange sensitive information is becoming a challenge. The paper proposes a new best effort blockchain based trust management framework for the real time data integrity, authentication vehicular identities and malicious behaviors detections. Based on the operating manufacturing environment context, a distributed ledger is applied as a trusted method to immutably store trust scores obtained by the multi-metric evaluation, which include message consistency, transmission reliability, location verification, as well as behavioral patterns. Both direct and indirect trust will be calculated in a hybrid trust model that combines both techniques, and consensus mechanisms will be used to screen transactions and trust updates. The performance in terms of detection of malicious nodes, false positives and whole network stability is compared with the conventional trust models using a simulated VANET environment. A set of comprehensive metrics including latency, throughput, trust convergence, as well as packet delivery ratio are presented, rendering the proposed solution feasible and robust.
The Internet of Autonomous Vehicles (IoAV) faces growing challenges in user privacy and communication security, stemming from dynamic network topologies induced by highspeed vehicle mobility, resource-constrained onboard devices, and the inherent tension between identity anonymity and traceability in latency-critical applications. Given the distributed architecture of fog computing and the limited storage and computational capabilities of vehicles, conventional anonymous authentication and centralized key negotiation mechanisms prove insufficient in addressing these issues. In response, We propose a distributed authentication and key negotiation protocol that combines multifactor biometrics, zero-knowledge proof (ZKP), and physical unclonable function (PUF) without relying on a trusted third party. Specifically, we design an efficient ZKP algorithm based on Chebyshev polynomials with low overhead and strong anonymity. Our key innovation is the implementation of independent key negotiation of three untrusted entities in a single protocol cycle, enabling 23 security features and functions. The performance analysis shows that the scheme takes only 17 ms to complete the protocol flow, and it reduces vehicle memory usage by 33% to 83%, service latency by 61% to 83%, and communication overhead by 12% to 50% compared to existing schemes.
Smart contracts have been a topic of interest in blockchain research and are a key enabling technology for Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) in the era of Web 3.0. These contracts enable trustless interactions without the need for intermediaries, as they operate based on predefined rules encoded on the blockchain. However, smart contacts face significant challenges in cross-contract communication and information sharing, making it difficult to establish seamless connectivity and collaboration among CAVs with Web 3.0. In this paper, we propose DeFeed , a novel secure protocol that incorporates various gas-saving functions for CAVs, originated from in-depth research into the interaction among smart contracts for decentralized cross-contract data feed in Web 3.0. DeFeed allows smart contracts to obtain information from other contracts efficiently in a single click, without complicated operations. We judiciously design and complete various functions with DeFeed , including a pool function and a cache function for gas optimization, a subscribe function for facilitating data access, and an update function for the future iteration of our protocol. Tailored for CAVs with Web 3.0 use cases, DeFeed enables efficient data feed between smart contracts underpinning decentralized applications and vehicle coordination. Implemented and tested on the Ethereum official test network, DeFeed demonstrates significant improvements in contract interaction efficiency, reducing computational complexity and gas costs. Our solution represents a critical step towards seamless, decentralized communication in Web 3.0 ecosystems.
Lukas Sparer, Alexander Neulinger, Rigault Bastien, Artur Gonçalves ¡ 7 authors
As the number of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations is growing rapidly, the risk of collisions increases significantly, making the coordination and verification of flight path compliance crucial. Since many different stakeholders, such as different UAV service suppliers (USS) and UAV operators are involved in an advanced air mobility (AAM) system, the system shall be decentralized and telemetry data shall be measured by the local community using sensor devices. In order to increase system resilience, sub-components of the system are implemented on a blockchain. Smart contracts are used to check whether a UAV has actually navigated the route specified by the USS pre-flight. Due to the restrictions of the system, the flight plan cannot be publicly revealed. Zero-Knowledge proofs (ZKPs) are unfeasible for this use case due to the high number of transactions and computational effort. Therefore, a novel approach has been developed that crosschecks measured telemetry data of UAV flights with flight plans and verifies the correctness without revealing any sensitive flight information. The verification results of UAV telemetry data can further be used to reward UAV operators for complying with the planned flight path.
Junhui Zhao, Yingxuan Guo, Longxia Liao, Dongming Wang
Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) is a platform that facilitates Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) interconnection. However, its open communication channels and high-speed mobility introduce security and privacy vulnerabilities. Anonymous authentication is crucial in ensuring secure communication and privacy protection in VANET. However, existing anonymous authentication schemes are prone to single points of failure and often overlook the efficient tracking of the true identities of malicious vehicles after pseudonym changes. To address these challenges, we propose an efficient anonymous authentication scheme for blockchain-based VANET. By leveraging blockchain technology, our approach addresses the challenges of single points of failure and high latency, thereby enhancing the service stability and scalability of VANET. The scheme integrates homomorphic encryption and elliptic curve cryptography, allowing vehicles to independently generate new pseudonyms when entering a new domain without third-party assistance. Security analyses and simulation results demonstrate that our scheme achieves effective anonymous authentication in VANET. Moreover, the roadside unit can process 500 messages per 19 ms. As the number of vehicles in the communication domain grows, our scheme exhibits superior message-processing capabilities.
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are essential to intelligent transportation systems (ITS), enabling secure, real-time communication among vehicles and infrastructure. However, their decentralized and dynamic nature makes them vulnerable to threats such as Sybil attacks, message forgery, replay attacks, and Denial-of-Service (DoS). This paper presents VANETGuard, a lightweight scalable trust management system that enhances security and scalability in 5G-enabled smart vehicular networks. The proposed system integrates entropy-based anomaly detection, Bayesian inference for adaptive trust scoring, and a lightweight distributed ledger for decentralized, tamper-resistant trust storage. Large-scale simulations under realistic traffic and attack conditions demonstrate that VANETGuard achieves 99.97% detection accuracy, significantly reduces false positives, and maintains low latency and computational overhead while supporting over 300 vehicles. These results highlight VANETGuardâs potential to enable secure, efficient, and scalable trust mechanisms in next-generation ITS and urban mobility systems.
S. Prasad, Atheer Ahmed Alrashed, Mgm Johar, Anas Ratib Alsoud ¡ 7 authors
ABSTRACT VANETs enhance traffic efficiency and road safety, but they can be attacked by malicious vehicles. These malicious vehicles can cause accidents or endanger lives by broadcasting false event messages and disrupting Internet of Vehicles applications. Before responding to sender messages, receiver vehicles must estimate the legitimacy and trustworthiness of the source vehicles. Existing solutions struggle to balance security and efficiency effectively. This paper introduces a model that combines the advantages of blockchain technology and trust model models to improve the trustworthiness, efficacy, and security of vehicular networks, alongside secure trustâbased optimized routing. Extensive experiments demonstrate the security and efficiency of the proposed model. The proposed model is adaptable to diverse VANET scenarios, addressing all security and privacy needs more comprehensively than current trust schemes. Efficiency analysis and simulation results show that our proposed framework outperforms baseline models, highlighting its security, effectiveness, and robustness in enhancing IoV communication security.
In smart cities, blockchain technology has the ability to completely transform how intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) function. Blockchain can offer a safe and decentralized platform for exchanging and storing data. Improve ITS systems' interoperability, security, and privacy. Blockchain technology may be applied to a number of ITS applications, such as decentralized markets for transportation services, smart contracts for driverless cars, and secure data transmission between automobiles, infrastructure, and service providers. Scalability and high processing power needs are two of the unique difficulties associated with integrating blockchain technology into ITS. Notwithstanding the difficulties, blockchain technology presents ITS in smart cities with a number of benefits, opening up new commercial avenues and encouraging innovation in transportation services. ITS's potential study topics and prospects for city development.
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) experiences multiple security threats during inter-domain routing such as prefix hijacking and route leaks and man-in-the-middle attacks. Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) and BGPsec along with other security solutions authenticate networks better but lack protection of network privacy and exhibit weaknesses due to concentration of authority. This paper introduces an integrated ZKP-based Route Verification Framework which uses blockchain technology to establish tamper-resistant privacy-preserving route validation. The framework includes five fundamental elements that provide ZKP proof generation for route credentials and blockchain-based proof storage and automated proof verification with BGP extension and off-chain IPFS-based proof management systems. The system architecture uses zk-SNARKs for cryptographic verifications while it relies on Hyperledger Fabric for decentralized proof validation. The proposed solution achieved superior routing security because it maintains both efficient storage scalability and minimal computational overhead according to performance testing results. The system results show that this framework provides adequate capabilities for actual Internet Service Provider deployments which support decentralized routing across domains while maintaining privacy protection.
Dushyant Kumar Yadav, Hemlal Sahu, Dharminder Chaudhary, ChengâChi Lee
ABSTRACT The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) has emerged as a promising application capable of enhancing transportation efficiency and providing a variety of mobile services to drivers. This IoV enables realâtime data sharing among vehicles and infrastructure, allowing for better traffic flow, reduced congestion, and optimized routes. By providing vehicles with realâtime information about nearby vehicles, road conditions, and potential hazards, IoV can significantly reduce the likelihood of accidents and improve overall road safety. Given the openness, continuous data production, distributed environment, and selfâorganizing nature of IoV, it is susceptible to numerous malicious attacks. To ensure the authenticity of mobile services within IoV, we have proposed a robust authentic blockchainâbased multisignature algorithm with Ethereum consensus mechanism. Blockchain's decentralized nature reduces the risk of single points of failure, making it more resilient against hacking and unauthorized access. In this system, all the transactions recorded on the blockchain are immutable, ensuring that the data remain accurate and tamper proof. This is crucial for maintaining trust in the information exchanged between vehicles. This also eliminates the need for a central authority, blockchain enables peerâtoâpeer interactions between vehicles, enhancing efficiency, and reducing latency. This security of the algorithm is based on short integer solution assumption can provide security even in the presence of quantum computers. The proposed algorithm is computationally efficient, and it uses thâdegree truncated polynomial ring unit (NTRU)âgenerated lattice with simple polynomials multiplication over a finite field. The results confirm that our proposed scheme is effective in enhancing security within the IoV environment.
Mukkoti Maruthi Venkata Chalapathi, K. Sreenivasulu, R. Jeya, Muhammad Faheem ¡ 7 authors
Highâsecurity transactions are stored in a chain of blocks using blockchain technology. Security and privacy concerns may be addressed by using blockchain technology. Federated learning is a paradigm for increasing data mining accuracy and precision by ensuring data privacy and security for both internet of things (IoT) devices and users in smart environments. Algorithms for dealing with limited training data and avoiding a particular model are included in the proposed model. Drones are indeed being researched and proactively employed in emergency situations, as well as catastrophic and highâcasualty situations. Governance, security, flying circumstances, security and privacy, authorization, confidentiality, and specifics around the creation, maintenance, and operation of a medical drone network are now obstacles to extending their usage in emergency medicine and emergency medical service (EMS). In this paper, we present the more effective FL to protect the data privacy of drones, which involves doing local and global parameter updates for drones and exchanging training parameters concerning fog nodes, rather than sending drone raw data to the cloud. Even so, eavesdropping and analyzing parameters that are uploaded during the training procedure might still provide ground eavesdroppers with information on drone privacy and operations. Specifically, in this work, we examine how to optimize the power management strategies to optimize all the required parameters of FL security cost while being bound by battery usage of drone capacity and the necessity for quality of service (QoS) (i.e., required training time). Extensive simulations were conducted, and the results demonstrate that the proposed Secure Federated Power Control (SFPC) can effectively improve utilities for drones, promote highâquality model sharing, and ensure privacy protection in federated learning, compared with existing schemes. Š 2025 The Author(s). IEEJ Transactions on Electrical and Electronic Engineering published by Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan and Wiley Periodicals LLC.