The 6G-based spectrum bands allocation to telecom providers would guarantee ultra peak rates, high availability, and extremely low-latency for various user applications. However, the spectrum allocation still suffers from the limitations of fair allocation process, delays in auction process, and collusive bidding due to inherent centralization. Thus, this paper proposes a scheme, Block6Tel, that integrates blockchain (BC) in 6G-envisioned spectrum allocation to ensure secure and trusted band allocation among telecom providers, and ensure transparency among telecom stakeholders. The scheme operates in two phases. First, a 6G-based protocol stack model is proposed that leverages a cell-free communication infrastructure. Then, in the second phase, a BC-based auction algorithm is proposed for inter-operator spectrum allocation, and resource allocations among service providers are finalized. Finally, smart contracts (SC) are executed among telecom providers as bidders, and government authorities (GA) as auctioneers. Through extensive simulations, we prove the superiority of Block6Tel compared with traditional static allocation approaches, in terms of parameters like- resource utilization, requests overhead, and allocation fairness. The results demonstrate that the proposed scheme outperforms the traditional schemes using various parameters.
Although the fifth generation wireless networks are yet to be fully investigated, the vision and key elements of the 6th generation (6G) ecosystem have already come into discussion. In order to contribute to these efforts and delineate the security and privacy aspects of 6G networks, we survey how security may impact the envisioned 6G wireless systems with the possible challenges and potential solutions. Especially, we discuss the security and privacy challenges that may emerge with the 6G requirements, novel network architecture, applications and enabling technologies including distributed ledger technologies, physical layer security, distributed artificial intelligence (AI)/ machine learning (ML), Visible Light Communication (VLC), THz bands, and quantum communication
The smart city aims for analyzing big data collected from massive Internet of Things (IoT) devices deployed across the city, to get an understanding of connected society, and improve the services provided to the citizens. The rapid development of 5G and beyond communication technologies, IoT, cloud computing, mobile edge computing, and interconnected networks has led to a new digital urban environment (i.e., smart city). Despite several potential benefits, the smart city environment has a major challenge of information security and privacy. A comprehensive analysis of architecture and key elements of smart city along with security and privacy requirements is provided in this chapter. We argue that distributed ledger technology (blockchain) can be used for secure communication in the smart city. Blockchain-based security mechanisms applied to different aspects of the smart city are discussed in detail. Some case studies are presented for smart cities where blockchain has been applied. We also highlight some open issues and future research directions for blockchain-based smart city environments.
Xiumei Deng, Jun Li, Chuan Ma, Kang Wei · 8 authors
The blockchain technology has been extensively studied to enable distributed and tamper-proof data processing in federated learning (FL). Most existing blockchain assisted FL (BFL) frameworks have employed a third-party blockchain network to decentralize the model aggregation process. However, decentralized model aggregation is vulnerable to pooling and collusion attacks from the third-party blockchain network. Driven by this issue, we propose a novel BFL framework that features the integration of training and mining at the client side. To optimize the learning performance of FL, we propose to maximize the long-term time average (LTA) training data size under a constraint of LTA energy consumption. To this end, we formulate a joint optimization problem of training client selection and resource allocation (i.e., the transmit power and computation frequency at the client side), and solve the long-term mixed integer non-linear programming based on a Lyapunov technique. In particular, the proposed dynamic resource allocation and client scheduling (DRACS) algorithm can achieve a trade-off of [$\mathcal{O}(1/V)$, $\mathcal{O}(\sqrt{V})$] to balance the maximization of the LTA training data size and the minimization of the LTA energy consumption with a control parameter $V$. Our experimental results show that the proposed DRACS algorithm achieves better learning accuracy than benchmark client scheduling strategies with limited time or energy consumption.
Blockchain (BC) technology can revolutionize the future of communications by enabling decentralized and open sharing networks. In this paper, we propose the application of BC to facilitate Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) and other players such as Verticals or Over-The-Top (OTT) service providers to exchange Radio Access Network (RAN) resources (e.g., infras-tructure, spectrum) in a secure, flexible and autonomous manner. In particular, we propose a BC-enabled reverse auction mecha-nism for RAN sharing and dynamic users' service provision in Beyond 5G networks, and we analyze its potential advantages with respect to current service provisioning and RAN sharing schemes. Moreover, we study the delay and overheads incurred by the BC in the whole process, when running over both wireless and wired interfaces.
Tri Nguyen Dang, Ki Tae Kim, Latif U. Khan, S. M. Ahsan Kazmi · 6 authors
Recently, we have witnessed an increasing demand in augmented reality (AR)-based fifth-generation (5G) and beyond applications, such as smart gaming, smart navigation, smart military wearable, and smart industries. These AR-based applications require on-demand computational and caching resources with low latency that can be provided via multiaccess edge computing (MEC) server. However, due to the massive growth of AR-enabled devices, the MEC server resources might be insufficient. To overcome this challenge, we can utilize the computational and caching resources of user equipment (UE) to serve the other UEs in its close vicinity. Successfully enabling such interaction among devices requires an attractive incentive mechanism. Therefore, we propose a contract theory-based incentive mechanism for enabling on-device caching for AR-based applications. In our approach, the MEC offers a reward to the UE for providing its resources (i.e., storage capacity, power, etc.). Furthermore, under the information asymmetry problem, we derive an optimal mechanism via the contract theory for enabling on-device caching subject to the individual rationality and incentive-compatible constraints. Finally, we perform numerical evaluations to validate the effectiveness of our proposed scheme.
The 5G wireless networks are potentially revolutionizing future technologies. The 5G technologies are expected to foresee demands of diverse vertical applications with diverse requirements including high traffic volume, massive connectivity, high quality of service, and low latency. To fulfill such requirements in 5G and beyond, new emerging technologies such as SDN, NFV, MEC, and CC are being deployed. However, these technologies raise several issues regarding transparency, decentralization, and reliability. Furthermore, 5G networks are expected to connect many heterogeneous devices and machines which will raise several security concerns regarding users' confidentiality, data privacy, and trustworthiness. To work seamlessly and securely in such scenarios, future 5G networks need to deploy smarter and more efficient security functions. Motivated by the aforementioned issues, blockchain was proposed by researchers to overcome 5G issues because of its capacities to ensure transparency, data reliability, trustworthiness, immutability in a distributed environment. Indeed, blockchain has gained momentum as a novel technology that gives rise to a plethora of new decentralized technologies. In this chapter, we discuss the integration of the blockchain with 5G networks and beyond. We then present how blockchain applications in 5G networks and beyond could facilitate enabling various services at the edge and the core.
With the deployment of fifth-generation (5G) wireless networks worldwide, research on sixth-generation (6G) wireless communications has commenced. It is expected that 6G networks can accommodate numerous heterogeneous devices and infrastructures with enhanced efficiency and security over diverse, e.g. spectrum, computing and storage, resources. However, this goal is impeded by a number of trust-related issues that are often neglected in network designs. Blockchain, as an innovative and revolutionary technology that has arisen in the recent decade, provides a promising solution. Building on its nature of decentralization, transparency, anonymity, immutability, traceability and resiliency, blockchain can establish cooperative trust among separate network entities and facilitate, e.g. efficient resource sharing, trusted data interaction, secure access control, privacy protection, and tracing, certification and supervision functionalities for wireless networks, thus presenting a new paradigm towards 6G. This paper is dedicated to blockchain-enabled wireless communication technologies. We first provide a brief introduction to the fundamentals of blockchain, and then we conduct a comprehensive investigation of the most recent efforts in incorporating blockchain into wireless communications from several aspects. Importantly, we further propose a unified framework of the blockchain radio access network (B-RAN) as a trustworthy and secure paradigm for 6G networking by utilizing blockchain technologies with enhanced efficiency and security. The critical elements of B-RAN, such as consensus mechanisms, smart contract, trustworthy access, mathematical modeling, cross-network sharing, data tracking and auditing and intelligent networking, are elaborated. We also provide the prototype design of B-RAN along with the latest experimental results.
In this article, we address the problem of prolonging the battery life of Internet of Things (IoT) nodes by introducing a smart energy harvesting framework for IoT networks supported by femtocell access points (FAPs) based on the principles of Contract Theory and Reinforcement Learning. Initially, the IoT nodes' social and physical characteristics are identified and captured through the concept of IoT node types. Then, Contract Theory is adopted to capture the interactions among the FAPs, who provide personalized rewards, i.e., charging power, to the IoT nodes to incentivize them to invest their effort, i.e., transmission power, to report their data to the FAPs. The IoT nodes' and FAPs' contract-theoretic utility functions are formulated, following the network economic concept of the involved entities' personalized profit. A contract-theoretic optimization problem is introduced to determine the optimal personalized contracts among each IoT node connected to a FAP, i.e., a pair of transmission and charging power, aiming to jointly guarantee the optimal satisfaction of all the involved entities in the examined IoT system. An artificial intelligent framework based on reinforcement learning is introduced to support the IoT nodes' autonomous association to the most beneficial FAP in terms of long-term gained rewards. Finally, a detailed simulation and comparative results are presented to show the pure operation performance of the proposed framework, as well as its drawbacks and benefits, compared to other approaches. Our findings show that the personalized contracts offered to the IoT nodes outperform by a factor of four compared to an agnostic type approach in terms of the achieved IoT system's social welfare.
We develop a new Lagrange coded blockchain model for Internet-of-Things (IoT) systems based on Lagrange coded computing (LCC). In the model, a mining task assigned to a blockchain node (BN) is encoded with a specific encoding function. Thus, the final result, i.e., newly generated block or block verification result, can be decoded even when only some mining outputs returned by BNs are correct, while other outputs are erroneous or discarded due to delays. To be decoded correctly, the number of mining outputs returned prior to decoding must be at least a given decoding threshold. Then, security against malicious BNs and resilience against stragglers can be guaranteed if the number of mining tasks allocated to BNs is not less than the sum of decoding threshold, number of stragglers, and double of the number of malicious BNs. Unlike other IoT blockchains and LCC-based methods showing enhanced throughput but yielding poor security, our model can improve throughput without compromising on security. This is achieved through optimized load allocations when the higher loads (two or more mining tasks) are allocated to the fastest BNs leading to: 1) increased number of mining outputs returned prior to decoding required to meet the decoding threshold and 2) increased number of allocated mining tasks to strengthen security and resilience. To overcome the limitation of our model related to higher loads and, hence, higher mining costs to BNs, we develop a contract-theoretic mechanism that incentivizes each BN to complete its mining task through joint load and transaction fee allocations.
Wireless resources, such as spectrum, computation, infrastructures and so on, are critical in 6G and beyond. Dynamic Resource Sharing (DRS), which improves the resource utilization compared to the static and fixed resource allocation, thus needs to be further exploited. Blockchain and AI are two promising techniques for DRS in 6G and beyond. In this article, a blockchain and AI-empow-ered DRS architecture is proposed, where block-chain is used to achieve the functionalities in DRS with improved distribution, security and automation, and AI is implemented to improve the performance of pattern recognition and decision-making in DRS. Finally, a case study where dynamic spectrum sharing is implemented within the proposed architecture, and deep reinforcement learning is used and shown to optimize the profit ratio of the users.
Hao Xu, Zihan Zhou, Lei Zhang, Yunqing Sun · 5 authors
As 6G networks evolve towards a synergistic system of Communication, Sensing, and Computing, Radio Access Networks become more distributed, necessitating robust end-to-end authentication. We propose Blockchain-enabled Radio Access Networks, a novel decentralized RAN architecture enhancing security, privacy, and efficiency in authentication processes. BE-RAN leverages distributed ledger technology to establish trust, offering user-centric identity management, enabling mutual authentication, and facilitating on-demand point-to-point inter-network elements and UE-UE communication with accountable logging and billing service add-on for public network users, all without relying on centralized authorities. We envision a thoroughly decentralized RAN model and propose a privacy-preserving P2P communication approach that complements existing security measures while supporting the CSC paradigm. Results demonstrate BE-RAN significantly reduces communication and computation overheads, enhances privacy through decentralized identity management, and facilitates CSC integration, advancing towards more efficient and secure 6G networks.
Onel L. Alcaraz López, Hirley Alves, Richard Demo Souza, Samuel Montejo‐Sánchez · 6 authors
Recent advances on wireless energy transfer (WET) make it a promising solution for powering future Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices enabled by the upcoming sixth-generation (6G) era. The main architectures, challenges and techniques for efficient and scalable wireless powering are overviewed in this article. Candidates enablers, such as energy beamforming (EB), distributed antenna systems (DASs), advances on devices' hardware and programmable medium, new spectrum opportunities, resource scheduling, and distributed ledger technology are outlined. Special emphasis is placed on discussing the suitability of channel state information (CSI)-limited/free strategies when powering simultaneously a massive number of devices. The benefits from combining DAS and EB, and from using average CSI whenever available, are numerically illustrated. The pros and cons of the state-of-the-art CSI-free WET techniques in ultralow power setups are thoroughly revised, and some possible future enhancements are outlined. Finally, key research directions toward realizing WET-enabled massive IoT networks in the 6G era are identified and discussed in detail.
Wireless network virtualization is a promising solution to improve spectrum efficiency. For a wireless downlink communication system with multiple mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs), we propose a decentralized blockchain-based dynamic spectrum acquisition scheme. Our proposed scheme aims to minimize the sum transmit power at all MVNOs while satisfying the average data transmission rate thresholds. For each MVNO, the required wireless spectrum to provide customized services to the mobile users (MUs) is predicted using the half-range Gauss-Hermite quadrature. Based on the predicted values, all the MVNOs carry out a blockchain-based distributed alternative direction method of multipliers to obtain the global optimal solution to the aforementioned sum transmit power minimization problem. To examine the effectiveness of our proposed scheme, with known system parameters, we also theoretically derive the semi-closed-form solution to the actually required sum transmit power minimization problem subject to data transmission rate constraints. Simulation results illustrate that our proposed dynamic spectrum acquisition scheme achieves almost the same minimum sum power as the non-causal scheme, which assumes the number of active MUs in all cells and all the channels are known non-causally for the optimal dynamic spectrum allocation.
Tao Han, Igor de L. Ribeiro, Naércio Magaia, Joao Preto · 8 authors
Unmanned aerial vehicles, commonly known as drones, are receiving growing research interest due to their ability to carry a multitude of sensors and to connect to mobile networks. They are also able to move freely across the air, which enables the creation of numerous applications that were until now considered impracticable. However, such applications may require high computational resources, reliable connection, and high data transmission rates to accomplish different tasks. Therefore, in this work, first, we discuss 5G communication networks and mobile edge computing (MEC) as promising technologies that can provide several benefits to drone-enabled environments and solve some of the presented issues. We also comment on 5G and MEC approaches, presenting the state of the art and seeking to solve each of the latter issues presented. Afterward, we introduce new security concerns of drone communication networks, given their recent popularity. These concerns are related to the possibility of malicious users taking advantage of this brand new technology, which has made many governments ban drones due to public safety. Next, blockchain technology is brought in as a novel solution to the security issues due to its decentralized nature, making it inherently safe. This article also surveys contributions that make use of each of the technologies mentioned to improve the emerging drone industry. Subsequently, we discuss open issues and future perspectives.
The sixth generation (6G) of wireless cellular networks is expected to incorporate the latest developments in network infrastructure and emerging advances in technology. In the age of 6G, edge caching technology will evolve towards intelligence, dynamics, and security. However, the security problems of edge caching, including data tampering and eavesdropping, are seldomly considered in most literatures. In this paper, we consider the two-hop edge caching where the blockchain and physical layer security technologies are adopted to prevent data from being tampered with and eavesdropped. We design blockchain-based framework to guarantee the reliability of important data such as the frequency of contents and jointly optimize content caching probability and redundancy rate to maximize the secure transmission probability. Extensive simulation shows that our optimization scheme can significantly improve the secure transmission probability of edge cache network, whether facing the threat of independent eavesdropping or joint eavesdropping.
In the mid 2030-s in the field of defense and national security communications the quantum computers and 6G artificial intelligence will have domination. 6G communication is accepted in a variety of mobile data comparts transmitted through spectral technologies. The human body becomes a part of the 6G network architecture. A set of network nodes or wearable devices, embedded sensors or nanodes collect confidential information that is exchanged for multiple purposes, such as health, statistics, and safety. An important part of the 6G new paradigm will be intelligent reflective surfaces, quantum teleportation, quantum encrypted messaging, 6G holography, distributed ledger, 6G layer security threats. The 6G wireless standards will allow real-time time zone high-speed internet communication with 1TB data per second. The radio frequency networks, THZ communications, molecular communications, and quantum communications will dramatically improve data rates.
The digital content wave has proliferated the financial and industrial sectors. Moreover, with the rise of massive internet-of-things, and automation, technologies like augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) have emerged as prominent players to drive a range of applications. Currently, sixth-generation (6G) networks support enhanced holographic projection through terahertz (THz) bandwidths, ultra-low latency, and massive device connectivity. However, the data is exchanged between autonomous networks over untrusted channels. Thus, to ensure data security, privacy, and trust among stakeholders, blockchain (BC) opens new dimensions towards intelligent resource management, user access control, audibility, and chronology in stored transactions. Thus, the BC and 6G coalition in future AR/VR applications is an emerging investigative topic. To date, authors have proposed surveys that study the integration of BC and 6G in AR/VR in isolation, and hence a coherent survey is required. Thus, to address the gap, the survey is the first-of-its-kind to investigate and study the coalition of BC and 6G in AR/VR space. Based on the proposed research questions in the survey, a solution taxonomy is presented, and different verticals are studied in detail. Furthermore, an integrative architecture is proposed, and open issues and challenges are presented. Finally, a case study, BvTours, is presented that presents a unique survey on BC-based 6G-assisted AR/VR virtual home tour service. The survey intends to propose future resilient frameworks and architectures for different industry 4.0 verticals and would serve as starting directions for academia, industry stakeholders, and research organizations to study the coalition of BC and 6G in AR/VR in industrial applications, gaming, digital content manufacturing, and digital assets protection in greater detail.
Volker Ziegler, Peter Schneider, Harish Viswanathan, Michael Montag · 6 authors
A comprehensive set of security technology enablers will be critically required for communication systems for the 6G era of the 2030s. Trustworthiness must be assured across IoT, heterogenous cloud and networks, devices, sub-networks, and applications. The 6G threat vector will be defined by 6G architectural disaggregation, open interfaces and an environment with multiple stakeholders. Broadly decomposed into domains of cyber-resilience, privacy and trust and their respective intersection, we explore relevant security technology enablers including automated software creation and automated closed-loop security operation, privacy preserving technologies, hardware and cloud embedded anchors of trust, quantum-safe security, jamming protection and physical layer security as well as distributed ledger technologies. Artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) as a key technology enabler will be pervasive and of pivotal relevance across the security technology stack and architecture. A novel vision for a trustworthy Secure Telecom Operation Map is developed as part of the automated closed loop operations paradigm.
Although the fifth generation (5G) wireless networks are yet to be fully investigated, the visionaries of the 6th generation (6G) echo systems have already come into the discussion. Therefore, in order to consolidate and solidify the security and privacy in 6G networks, we survey how security may impact the envisioned 6G wireless systems, possible challenges with different 6G technologies, and the potential solutions. We provide our vision on 6G security and security key performance indicators (KPIs) with the tentative threat landscape based on the foreseen 6G network architecture. Moreover, we discuss the security and privacy challenges that may encounter with the available 6G requirements and potential 6G applications. We also give the reader some insights into the standardization efforts and research-level projects relevant to 6G security. In particular, we discuss the security considerations with 6G enabling technologies such as distributed ledger technology (DLT), physical layer security, distributed AI/ML, visible light communication (VLC), THz, and quantum computing. All in all, this work intends to provide enlightening guidance for the subsequent research of 6G security and privacy at this initial phase of vision towards reality.
Sixth-generation (6G) mobile networks will have to cope with diverse threats on a space-air-ground integrated network environment, novel technologies, and an accessible user information explosion. However, for now, security and privacy issues for 6G remain largely in concept. This survey provides a systematic overview of security and privacy issues based on prospective technologies for 6G in the physical, connection, and service layers, as well as through lessons learned from the failures of existing security architectures and state-of-the-art defenses. Two key lessons learned are as follows. First, other than inheriting vulnerabilities from the previous generations, 6G has new threat vectors from new radio technologies, such as the exposed location of radio stripes in ultra-massive MIMO systems at Terahertz bands and attacks against pervasive intelligence. Second, physical layer protection, deep network slicing, quantum-safe communications, artificial intelligence (AI) security, platform-agnostic security, real-time adaptive security, and novel data protection mechanisms such as distributed ledgers and differential privacy are the top promising techniques to mitigate the attack magnitude and personal data breaches substantially.