Pavel Kraynyukov, V. Tolstosheev, Р Н Гузеев, R LEMESHKIN
The article continues analyzing of the problem of provision of medical assistance to forced migrants, which began in the issue No.6, 2025 and presents a conceptual model of the use of distributed ledger technology (blockchain) for creation of a decentralized secured and interoperable system for the management of medical data.
The increasing complexity of international trade agreements and cross-border transactions necessitates efficient, transparent, and enforceable dispute resolution mechanisms. Traditional methods of conflict solving like litigation and arbitration bear many drawbacks including time-consuming, high costs and jurisdiction issues. As a result, blockchain technology has become the element that enhances the mechanisms for the effective implementation of international trade law instruments on smart contracts and decentralized dispute resolution (DDR) platforms. Due to the primary property of blockchain, by forming smart contracts, it is possible to reduce contradictions that may arise from contractual uncertainty, delay in enforcement, and breaches. The immutability of the record storage in the blocks facilitates the discouragement of contract breaches and the enhancement of the performance reviews instead of legal remand. In addition, blockchain removes the intermediaries thus offers reduce on legal expenses and enhance access specifically to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) who engage in international business. This paper aims at exploring the use of blockchain based smart contracts in the resolution of dispute as well as minimizing conflicts and improving legal certainty in international business.
The financial technology (FinTech) revolution, driven by Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), presents a watershed moment for global commerce and law. At its core, DLT, encompassing cryptocurrency, blockchain, and smart contracts, challenges the foundational principles of traditional finance and legal jurisprudence: intermediation, jurisdiction, and contract enforceability. This paper analyzes the critical legal dimensions emerging from this technological shift, moving beyond an initial period of regulatory uncertainty toward a new era of targeted legislation and landmark litigation. Specifically, it examines the fragmented global regulatory response to crypto-assets (e.g., the EU's MiCA and US legislative efforts), the legal complexity of classifying DLT assets, the disruptive potential and data privacy concerns of non-currency blockchain applications, and the profound jurisprudential conflict between the deterministic "code is law" ethos of smart contracts and the flexibility of common and civil law traditions. The paper concludes that DLT presents a significant legal opportunity to enhance transparency and efficiency, but only through the establishment of nuanced, principle-based regulatory frameworks that can reconcile decentralized technology with the imperative of financial stability, consumer protection, and equitable legal recourse.
Through its decentralized architecture, blockchain technology has become a transforming paradigm in the banking sector, revolutionizing established procedures. This study analyzes the dynamic convergence of blockchain and finance, with an emphasis on smart contracts' essential role in altering financial transactions. It adds to the expanding knowledge of the practical uses and possibilities of this technology in the banking industry by investigating the uses, problems, and prospects of smart contracts within the financial environment. This research study digs into the many uses, effects, problems, and prospects of smart contracts in the banking industry. This chapter attempts to give a full knowledge of how smart contracts are revolutionizing financial processes and determining the future of the financial sector through theoretical studies.
This article examines the legal nature of smart contracts and their compatibility with the legal system of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Smart contracts are defined as a hybrid legal mechanism arising from the convergence of classical contract law and blockchain technology. The author argues that automated execution of contractual obligations significantly reshapes traditional legal concepts of consent and performance. The study provides a comparative analysis of international regulatory approaches to smart contracts, focusing on the United States, the European Union, and selected Asian countries. Key principles such as technological neutrality, functional equivalence, and human oversight are assessed. This comparative perspective highlights the growing role of smart contracts beyond purely commercial transactions. The article evaluates Azerbaijani legislation, including the Civil Code, the Law on Electronic Signature and Electronic Document, and the Digital Development Concept, as a normative foundation for smart contracts. It concludes that the existing legal framework offers sufficient grounds for recognizing smart contracts as legally valid electronic agreements. The author emphasizes the potential application of smart contracts in digital government, e-services, and public procurement as part of Azerbaijan’s broader digital transformation agenda
This article examines the probative value of blockchain (distributed ledger technology) in legal proof. It highlights the technology’s core features—decentralization, immutability, cryptography, and time-stamping—and assesses how they fit within rules of evidence, particularly the requirements of electronic writing and electronic signature. The study also discusses the extent of legislative recognition in Morocco and comparative systems, with a focus on identity attribution and the link between a digital record and its author. It concludes that blockchain records may carry increasing persuasive force, while full evidentiary equivalence requires clearer regulatory frameworks and trusted digital services to ensure integrity and reliability.
The subject of the stud y is a digital token in a cross–border payment infrastructure (hereinafter referred to as CBPI) based on distributed ledger technology (hereinafter referred to as DLT). The purpose of the work is to analyze and scientifically evaluate methodological approaches to the formation of CBPI. The relevance of the work is due to the atmosphere of uncertainty and growing risks of external impact on the cross-border payment infrastructure that the Russian Federation has faced in recent years, as well as the need to address the challenge of ensuring accessibility, continuity, sustainability and security of its operation. As a result of the research, using heterodox, systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, pragmatic and institutional approaches, the economic characteristics of the payment token have been developed and presented, including the most significant ones for the smooth implementation of cross-border payment transactions. It is concluded that the existing approaches make it possible to determine the main economic characteristics of a digital token in a cross-border payment infrastructure based on DLT, including security, cost stability, liquidity, volatility, as well as auxiliary ones — interoperability, scalability, transactional neutrality, economic isolation.
N K Vasilieva, J. D. Darmilova, А.П. ГОРБАТКО, A. N. Kalinichenko
This article examines the concept of cryptocurrency and its specific features. Based on the collection and analysis of information, the paper identifies the dual nature of cryptocurrency, which manifests itself both in the provision of new financial opportunities and in the expansion of corruption and fraudulent schemes. The article explores legal measures and approaches to combating cryptocurrency-related offenses, as well as current methods of detecting corruption involving cryptocurrencies.
The article is devoted to the study of the role of digital competencies of management personnel in ensuring the competitiveness of organizations in the financial technology (fintech) sector. In the context of digital transformation of the economy and accelerating technological changes, the presence of relevant digital skills among managers becomes an essential condition for the successful functioning of fintech companies capable of creating demanded personalized financial products and services. The author examines the evolution of the concept of «digital competencies» from basic computer literacy to a comprehensive category that includes proficiency in modern data analysis tools, artificial intelligence, and distributed ledger technologies. The paper systematizes the methods for developing digital competencies of management personnel, identifying three main groups: educational, practice-oriented (project-based), and organizational-motivational. For each group, specific learning tools are presented, such as distance learning systems (LMS), workshops, hackathons, communities of practice, as well as gamification tools and KPI trackers. It is substantiated that the choice of methods and tools should be made taking into account the organization’s resource availability, the workload of managers, and the need for individualization of the educational process to increase the efficiency of professional training costs.
J. D. C. Vergara, D. E. Burdin, R.H. Davletbaev, Д. К. Д. Вергара · 6 authors
In the context of the digitalization of the economy, the problem of organizing effective document management in the non-profit sector has become particularly pressing. Traditional methods of managing information flows struggle to fully adapt to the requirements of transparency, accountability, and the legal significance of data. This article proposes a methodological approach to solving the document management problem based on the integration of distributed ledger technologies and smart contracts. A conceptual model of digital document management has been developed, in which each business event is represented as a smart document with legal verification in a blockchain environment. The paper describes in detail the stages of architecture development, the algorithms for interaction between participants, and the mechanisms for ensuring the immutability of records. The obtained results make it possible to increase transparency and trust between participants in non-profit organizations, ensure the automation of legally significant transactions, and minimize the risk of data falsification. The practical significance lies in the possibility of implementing the proposed approach into existing management systems of non-profit structures, which creates the basis for the formation of digital ecosystems of trusted document management.
В работе исследуется трансформация рынка факторинга под влиянием внедрения технологии смарт-контрактов на основе технологии блокчейна. Рассматриваются финансовые аспекты: изменение структуры транзакционных издержек, минимизация рисков, повышение ликвидности за счет выхода на глобальные рынки капитала через DeFi-протоколы. На основе анализа данных Национального статистического комитета Республики Беларусь (Белстат) за 2025 г. и прогнозов на 2026 г. демонстрируется взаимосвязь между цифровизацией и ростом эффективности факторинговых операций. Особое внимание уделяется сравнению традиционной модели с инновационной моделью смарт-контрактинга. Проведенный анализ показывает, что применение смарт-контрактов позволяет не только ускорить оборот денежных средств, но и решить проблему асимметрии информации, что особенно критично для финансирования малого и среднего бизнеса.
This bachelor’s thesis examines the effects of the Bitcoin Law, under which Bitcoin was recognized as legal tender in El Salvador in 2021, on the country’s business environment, with a particular focus on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The study is based on a secondary analysis of empirical studies, institutional reports, and available data covering the period 2019–2024. Using descriptive methods and a comparative approach with selected Latin American countries, it assesses the policy’s impact on transaction costs, access to payment services, and financial inclusion. The findings indicate that Bitcoin adoption among SMEs remains low and selective, while aggregate macroeconomic indicators do not confirm a structural break. Declining remittance costs and the expansion of cashless payments are driven primarily by the modernization of conventional payment infrastructure and traditional digital financial services. Thus, based on the available findings, the Bitcoin Law is not confirmed as a technological shortcut to development. Improving conditions for SMEs appears to depend mainly on strengthening institutions, enhancing financial and digital literacy, and building inclusive payment infrastructure in combination with a predictable regulatory framework. The thesis concludes with recommendations for El Salvador, the business sector, and other countries in the region.
The article examines the regulatory challenges associated with smart contracts in the Russian legal framework and explores the potential role of UNCITRAL instruments in addressing them. The main problem lies in the absence of a clear legal qualification of smart contracts in Russian law. Although smart contracts are used in practice and are indirectly reflected in certain provisions of the Civil Code, Russian legislation does not define them as automatically formed or automatically performed contracts. As a result, their regulation is largely shaped by the internal rules of digital platforms. The article argues that a smart contract should not be reduced either to a traditional contract, an electronic form of contract, or merely a method of performance. Rather, it should be treated as a sui generis legal and technological phenomenon. Particular attention is paid to the principles of technological neutrality, non-discrimination of automated transactions, attribution of actions performed by automated systems, and unexpected outcomes. The UNCITRAL Model Law on Automated Contracting may serve as an important reference point for developing a balanced Russian approach that combines statutory principles with platform-based regulation.
Dmitry M. Fedorov, Y. Kovalenko, Svetlana N. Kovalenko
The article is devoted to the study of the role of information technologies in improving the mechanisms for monitoring the results of scientific activity in the Russian Federation. The purpose of the article is to analyze existing information systems – EGISU R&D, eLibrary, RSCI and Antiplagiat, as well as to identify problems and limitations of their functioning. The methodological basis consists of a systematic analysis of regulatory legal acts, a comparative analysis of the functionality of systems and a review of publications on the problems of scientometry and digitalization of science. It has been established that, despite significant progress in the creation of digital infrastructure, Russian systems are characterized by insufficient integration, inefficient data verification and excessive focus on quantitative indicators. Recommendations on the implementation of distributed ledger technologies and ensuring a balance between quantitative and expert evaluation of the results are formulated. The practical significance of the work lies in the justification of measures to increase transparency and reliability of scientific activity control.
Marina Migunova, Sofya A. Nazarenko, Anzhelina A. Zakharova, Dmitry M. Grechnev · 5 authors
In the context of digitalization of world trade, the task of effective foreign economic administration is becoming more and more urgent. The purpose of the article is to analyze the application of blockchain smart contracts in foreign economic activity. The evolution of the concept, advantages (automation, transparency, savings) and disadvantages, as well as legal limitations, including the lack of international regulation (using the example of BRICS), are considered. The conclusion is made: the introduction of smart contracts optimizes foreign economic activity, but requires a transformation of legislation and the harmonization of international standards.
Despite the apparent lack of legal regulation regarding the definition of the content and rules of civil circulation of cryptocurrencies, which is the basis for courts to refuse to consider civil cases involving cryptocurrency, binding relationships related to cryptocurrency certainly exist and are developing. The impossibility of judicial protection of this kind of obligations raises the question of their legal nature and on the basis of what factors it is possible to transform these obligations into civil obligations subject to judicial protection. The purpose of the article is to consider the features of cryptocurrency as an object of natural obligations, to identify facts that serve as grounds for refusing to recognize transactions with cryptocurrency and their judicial protection, to establish the possibility of converting transactions with cryptocurrency from natural obligations to civil ones. When conducting the research, the main methods were general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis. Special methods such as comparative law, historical law, and formal law were used as auxiliary methods. As a result of considering cryptocurrencies as natural obligations that are not subject to legal protection, the conclusion is drawn: transactions with cryptocurrencies have a property such as latency, which removes this type of transaction from the jurisdiction of the courts, giving them the property of naturalness. The facts that serve as grounds for the courts to refuse to protect transactions with cryptocurrency are the following: 1) the owners of cryptocurrencies are individuals or legal entities whose personal law is not Russian law; 2) there is no information about the subjects of the transaction and other interested parties; 3) there is no information about the objects of the transaction; 4) there is no information about the transaction itself.
Over the past decade, profound changes of various kinds have simultaneously occurred in the international environment and political systems, political regimes, and their functioning in a significant number of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americasthat is, on all continents. All of these profound changes have had serious and, naturally, diverse multidirectional consequences for the perception of human rights, attitudes towards them, their normative protection, and practice of human rights. Moreover, they have coincided with the revolutionary restructuring of polities at the international, regional, and national levels under the influence of their technological rearmament, digitalization, robotization, and the routinization of the everyday use of artificial intelligence, distributed ledgers, and breakthrough biotechnologies. This presentation and its journal version examine the most debated, controversial. self-contained, multidirectional trends and countertrends in the development of human rights, their protection, defense, and the practice of observing and violating them.
Open access
Digital Transformation in Law
Legal and Policy Issues
Legal, Health, Environmental and COVID-19 Challenges
Svetlana Marković, Radovan Vladisavljević, Marko Marković
Smart contracts are one of the most prevalent and important blockchain-based technologies in the field of financial security, as the automatic execution of predefined rules provides additional efficiency, lowers costs and minimizes the involvement of intermediaries. This research will examine the use of smart contracts for process automation, risk reduction and organizational restructuring in the financial sector. In particular, the interaction between centralized and decentralized financial systems, the technology behind the implementation of blockchain and security issues associated with the use of smart contracts will be considered. At the same time, escrows will be presented as an example of the practical use of smart contracts for financial operations. The results of this analysis will show that smart contracts can be used as a means to increase the reliability of financial operations; however, their widespread use depends on proper regulation, security assessment and integration with the existing financial infrastructure.
The article examines the role of distributed ledger (blockchain) technologies as a key institutional factor in the transformation of the digital financial services system in the context of the structural restructuring of the financial sector and the strengthening of requirements for transparency, security and efficiency of settlements. The systemic effects of the introduction of blockchain technologies are highlighted, which determine the reduction of transaction costs, acceleration of settlements, increased trust between counterparties and the formation of new models for organizing financial relations. The impact of distributed registries on changes in coordination mechanisms in the financial system, transformation of traditional mediation institutions and redistribution of roles between financial market participants is disclosed. Particular attention is paid to the limitations and risks of implementing distributed registries associated with institutional inertia, shortage of qualified personnel and difficulties in integrating with existing information systems. The author shows the key focus of the factor of increasing the efficiency of digital financial services and the sustainable development of the financial system in blockchain technology, with appropriate institutional, legal and investment support.
The article examines the current state and key developmental trends of the payment system of the Russian Federation under the conditions of financial sector digitalization and unprecedented external sanction pressure. The primary focus is placed on analyzing the performance of the National Payment Card System (NPCS) as a guarantor of the country’s economic stability and technological sovereignty. Based on statistical data, the dynamics of implementing “Mir” cards and the Faster Payments System (FPS) are considered, alongside a mathematical evaluation of the economic efficiency of transactional technologies for commercial enterprises. Key barriers in the sphere of cross-border settlements are identified, and perspective ways to overcome them are proposed, including the integration of the digital ruble and supranational distributed ledger technology platforms.
The article examines the potential of blockchain technology and the digital ruble for optimizing public procurement in the education sector. The existing problems of the public procurement system in Russian educational institutions are analyzed, including lack of transparency in spending, bureaucratic costs, and corruption risks. The mechanism of digital ruble smart contracts is investigated as a tool for labeling and automatic control of targeted budget expenditures. International experience in applying blockchain technologies in public procurement is reviewed. The analysis of opportunities for educational startups integrating distributed ledger solutions into the management of educational institutions is conducted. Practical recommendations for implementing the digital ruble in budget settlements of the education sector are formulated.
The trend toward digitalization and the implementation of ESG standards poses the challenge for Russian regions to rapidly restructure their governance. This paper demonstrates that integrating smart contracts into a region's transport and logistics system can significantly increase the flexibility of its institutional system. The authors explore the potential of blockchain algorithms for optimizing operating costs, ensuring the transparency of trade flows, and verifying non-financial reporting. A conceptual feedback loop is presented, demonstrating the intersection of digital technologies and regulatory mechanisms. The authors' contribution lies in their interpretation of smart contracts as flexible regulatory algorithms and their identification of the logistics industry as the primary vehicle for ESG principles at the meso-level. This material will be of interest to specialists in regional governance, institutional economics, and digital innovation.