The cipher (or athbash, under which name Web3 defines it) is a Hebrew substitution cipher which replaces the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet (aleph, 1\) by the last (tav, ) the second (beth, J) by the last but one (shin, IJI), and so on, unti I we get to the last (ta , n), which i replaced by the first (aleph, 1\). Jan Anderson described it in Fledge Ledge Edge (WW 8. 1997229). Naturally, the idea can be applied to our alphabet; following the precedent set by atbash I name it the azby cipher.
In the paper, we present a notion about two directional zero knowledge proof, and study the relation between two directional zero knowledge proof and traditional one directional zero knowledge proof. We propose several simple two directional zero knowledge problem proof protocols. We introduce the two directional zero knowledge proof is to study secure multi party computation. Based on the two directional zero knowledge, we have designed some special function secure two party computation protocols, including exponential function problem, power function problem, logarithmic function problem, trigonometric function problem, and propose some concern protocols.
We show new lower bounds and impossibility results for general (possibly non-black-box) zero-knowledge proofs and arguments. Our main results are that, under reasonable complexity assumptions: 1. There does not exist a two-round zero-knowledge proof system with perfect completeness for an NP-complete language. The previous impossibility result for two-round zero knowledge, by Goldreich and Oren (J. Cryptology, 1994) was only for the case of auxiliary-input zero-knowledge proofs and arguments. 2. There does not exist a constant-round zero-knowledge strong proof or argument of knowledge (as defined by Goldreich (2001)) for a nontrivial language. 3. There does not exist a constant-round public-coin proof system for a nontrivial language that is resettable zero knowledge. This result also extends to bounded-resettable zero knowledge, in which the number of resets is a priori bounded by a polynomial in the input length and prover-to-verifier communication.
Twelve years into the implementation of the Local Government Code of 1991, it is but opportune to assess how the key features of this landmark legislation has contributed to (or detracted from) achieving the balance between local autonomy and accountability. The literature on fiscal decentralization suggests that these two goals are not incompatible. In fact, real autonomy (in the sense of subnational governments being able to link their spending decisions with their revenue/tax decisions) promotes fiscal responsibility. In the context of the ongoing debate in the Philippines, however, local autonomy has been equated (by many LGUs officials) with the independence of LGUs from central government interference. As such, LGU officials have focused more on securing even higher levels of block grants in order to address the widely perceived vertical fiscal imbalance. However, closer scrutiny of the problem indicates that greater_x000D_ tax decentralization coupled with a well designed intergovernmental transfer system that includes elements of fiscal equalization and categorical grants conditional on the achievement of minimum service standards would better enhance the gains that are forthcoming from the decentralization process while minimizing the risks of macroinstability.
Zero-knowledge proof schemes of possessing a RSA digital signature are proposed. The schemes give a new method of preventing arbitrary propagation of digital signature. By which the prover does not need to give directly the signature of the message, but to give a zero-knowledge proof of possessing a digital signature. The schemes are the improvement of confirm signature, and is much simpler in practice and of significant feature that it does not need the third party to take part in the scheme. The schemes can be used in copyright protection.
One of the internationally accepted principles of river basin management is to decentralize decision making to the lowest appropriate level. This principle has been promulgated extensively over the past 15 years, leading to the creation of many river basin management organizations structured around a broader participation of stakeholders from different user groups and sectors in order to achieve more integrated water resources management. This study originated from empirical observations, based on experience with World Bank-financed river basin management projects all over the world. Experience from these projects suggested that while the concept of management at the lowest appropriate level could be translated into laws and regulations relatively easily, its actual application often encounters obstacles due to the varying interests of different stakeholder groups, including those having to promote decentralization. In practice, this means that projects and policies based around integrated water resources management principles may not fully achieve their potential benefits. This observation led this study to investigate the underlying reasons for (non-) achievement of decentralization in river basin management. The research was carried out over the period 2002 to 2005. The study consists of three main parts: (1) a global survey of 83 river basin organizations around the world, (2) eight in-depth case studies and (3) an extensive literature review.
This paper begins with a description of globalization and analyzes its nature and effects on the financial environment. Implications of globalization for state sovereignty are also addressed. In particular, global challenges to national fiscal sovereignty are discussed. In this context, this writing clarifies the concept of tax jurisdiction and reviews problems with the national tax systems such as double taxation, and taxpayers' cross-border arbitrage which results from the increased mobility of capital associated with financial globalization. Furthermore, an emphasis has been given to discuss the pros and cons of tax competition and harmonization. More importantly, this article attempts to search for the measures to enhance global governance in the international tax regime. In this regard, an analysis of the network of tax treaties is provided. I then move on to review the role of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) as a global tax network in international taxation. In this context, an emphasis is placed on the evaluation of global network governance conducted by independent decentralized government agencies in the international economy under international law. In addition, an argument about the creation of the International Tax Organization (ITO) is discussed. Finally, this paper concludes by seeking alternatives to enhance global tax governance through the coordination of a bilateral tax treaty network and a global tax network in international finance.
Peter Waalwo Kajula, Francis Kintu, John Barugahare, Stella Neema
The aim of this study was to assess the political and social dynamics resulting from the rapid change in user-fee reforms in Uganda and the effects on service delivery for malaria control. Using political mapping and political risk analysis techniques, the study analysed qualitative and quantitative data obtained from secondary data sources and key actors in the policy arena. The results have shown that the feasibility of user-fees in Uganda was undermined by the absence of strong central government leadership and strategies to manage the politics of the reforms. The resultant rapid change in policy adversely affected the recurrent expenditures of health units that previously relied heavily on cost sharing, which led to a chronic shortage of malaria drugs and undermined the ability of health facilities to hire and motivate staff. The study results demonstrate that in order to contribute positively to healthcare delivery goals for malaria control in endemic countries, user-fees require full ownership and strong political leadership by the central government. Decentralization, when merely used as a strategy to navigate the political risks associated with user-fees, is unlikely to succeed without a centrally coordinated and managed process of policy formulation and acceptance involving wider consultations and political management of interest groups.
We propose an approach using elliptic curve-based zero-knowledge proofs in e-commerce applications. We demonstrate that using elliptic curved-based zero-knowledge proofs provide privacy and more security than other existing techniques. The improvement of security is due to the complexity of solving the discrete logarithm problem over elliptic curves.
That rural local bodies or Panchayats once an appendage of the rural development departments have been made a ‘third stratum’ of Indian federal polity is a great step towards decentralized governance. Panchayat is defined in the Indian Constitution as ‘an institution of self-government’ for the rural areas (Article 243(d) and is structured on a three-tier basis ‐ village, intermediate and district (Article 243 B). The hallmark of any self-government is the degree of autonomy it enjoys in formulating and implementing public policies in regard to those functional responsibilities assigned to it. In the threetier structure, the most critical level is the village or gram panchayat (GP) for a number of reasons. It is closer to the people and is enjoined to interact with the assembly of citizenvoters called Gram Sabha (Article 243A). The delivery of several basic services and ‘planning for economic development and social justice’ (Article 243G and 243W) can work effectively and equitably only at the village level. More over, in almost all states only the GPs are endowed with revenue-raising powers. The intermediate and district tiers by and large do not enjoy substantial taxing powers (See Appendix A, A1 and A2). Nearly a decade has passed since the decentralized development process has been launched. The purpose of this paper is to raise some rural fiscal decentralisation issues in the context of the twelfth finance commission (TFC). Kerala which has made significant strides in regard to fiscal decentralisation is chosen for special mention in order to draw possible lessons for others. The paper is organized under four heads: 1
The distribution of competencies between the different levels of a federal system may have remarkable effects on economic growth, because mainly the regions of a country contribute to national economic development. Thus, a governments economic policy is reasonably shaped along regional lines. The theoretical discussion in economics focuses however on the efficiency aspects of a decentralized provision and financing of public services; rarely the argument is raised that decentralization or federalism increases growth through a higher ability of the political system to innovate and to carry out reforms. After a discussion of the theoretical arguments on federalism and growth, we address the empirical question in this paper how important the assignment of decision making competencies and the design of fiscal federalism are for economic development. Finally, on the basis of existing theoretical and empirical studies on economic growth and federalism, open questions and possible ways of answering them are presented.
A major theoretical as well as political approach to transport infrastructure investment and management is the idea that such services are public goods and should not be subject to private market considerations. However, from time to time, public provision seems to fail, which increases the importance of various forms of private sector participation. Assessing the impact of devolution on the country's road infrastructure, the author underscores the lack of coherence in the design and redistribution of resources and responsibilities, which resulted in a coordination gap between national government agencies and local government units. An important insight is that the private provision of a public good may be feasible, for as long as its consumer-beneficiaries can be made to pay a use price, such that the revenue stream to the private provider is greater than the cost of construction, administration, and upkeep of the public good.
Zero-knowledge proofs are one of the most important cryptographic notions. Since their introduction in the early 80's by Goldwasser, Micali and Racko, they have proven very useful in the design of cryptographic protocols. Nevertheless, many limitations (in terms of e ciency and robustness under concurrent executability of protocols) have also been noticed. In order to overcome these limitations two lines of research have been investigated in the literature: 1. Models with some limited intervention of a trusted party (for example during a set-up phase). 2. Weakenings of the notion of zero-knowledge. In this thesis we attempt to further the understanding of the notion of zero-knowledge proofs by addressing both the above lines of research. More precisely, 1. Concerning the rst line of research, we show that the de nition of zeroknowledge in certain popular models (namely the Common Reference
The concept of zero-knowledge (ZK) has become of fundamental importance in cryptography. However, in a setting where entities are modeled by quantum computers, classical arguments for proving ZK fail to hold since, in the quantum setting, the concept of rewinding is not generally applicable. Moreover, known classical techniques that avoid rewinding have various shortcomings in the quantum setting.<br /> <br />We propose new techniques for building <em>quantum</em> zero-knowledge (QZK) protocols, which remain secure even under (active) quantum attacks. We obtain computational QZK proofs and perfect QZK arguments for any NP language in the common reference string model. This is based on a general method converting an important class of classical honest-verifier ZK (HVZK) proofs into QZK proofs. This leads to quite practical protocols if the underlying HVZK proof is efficient. These are the first proof protocols enjoying these properties, in particular the first to achieve perfect QZK.<br /> <br />As part of our construction, we propose a general framework for building unconditionally hiding (trapdoor) string commitment schemes, secure against quantum attacks, as well as concrete instantiations based on specific (believed to be) hard problems. This is of independent interest, as these are the first unconditionally hiding string commitment schemes withstanding quantum attacks.<br /> <br />Finally, we give a partial answer to the question whether QZK is possible in the plain model. We propose a new notion of QZK, <em>non-oblivious verifier</em> QZK, which is strictly stronger than honest-verifier QZK but weaker than full QZK, and we show that this notion can be achieved by means of efficient (quantum) protocols.
Laura B. Rawlings, Lynne Sherburne-Benz, Julie Van Domelen
The study seeks to answer four questions that summarize the fundamental issues in the international debate about the capacity of social funds to improve beneficiaries' living conditions: o Do social funds reach poor areas and poor households? Do social funds deliver high-quality, sustainable investments? Do social funds affect living standards? How cost-efficient are social funds and the investments they finance, compared with other delivery mechanisms? The findings and lessons from this research reflect a specific moment in the evolution of six social funds and therefore may not fully predict the future impact of current investments. The evaluation assesses subprojects identified and implemented between 1993 and 1999, a period when longer-term objectives-such as increasing access to and utilization of basic services-began to supplant the funds' original emergency mandates. The time period selected allowed enough elapsed time following the implementation of the social fund subprojects to make measurement of impact and sustainability possible. The evaluation does not consider the effects of social fund projects on employment or on income generation-the original objectives of the first generation of social funds, which were introduced in Latin America. It also does not discuss the effect of social fund investments on capacity building-a more recent emphasis of social funds seeking to assist decentralization and community development.
The restructuring of the state bureaucracy deals largely with the relations between the state and market. It does not tell us how the Chinese government has used modern economic means to manage and regulate the economy. This chapter shifts to the latter aspect, focusing on the reforms in the key sectors of taxation, finance, and the enterprise system. In reforming China's fiscal and financial systems, the leadership sought to achieve two main goals. First, fiscal and financial reforms aimed to promote the development of the market economy by changing the relationship between the state and the enterprises, and second, the reforms were expected to build a modern state by managing the economy more efficiently and shifting economic power from local government to the central state. This chapter attempts to link the reforms in taxation, finance, and state-owned enterprises (SOEs) with state-building efforts by the leadership. Taxation reform and the tax regime China's fiscal system since the late 1970s has undergone a drastic transformation from a unitary system to a federal one. When the leadership first embarked on economic reform, it recognized that enterprises as well as local governments had to be provided with incentives to support the reform effort. This was achieved through fiscal decentralization. But this process augmented local autonomy at the expense of the center's fiscal capacity.