In Benin, between 1970 and 2010, experiments in the areas of rural road construction and maintenance did not yield infrastructure in a permanently good state of repair. The results of these campaigns were inconclusive and accompanied by an observation of incoherent policy regarding rural road construction and maintenance, in addition to noting rather unrealistic mechanisms in place for applying resources to generate the necessary maintenance financing. In light of these policy failures, the National Rural Transport Strategy (or NRTS), designed to acknowledge the nation's decentralization mandate, was adopted. This strategic policy has been in an experimental phase since 2011, and initial results are now available.
The first step towards effective fiscal decentralization, which is one of the most important tasks of local government reforms in Ukraine, should be sharing of responsibilities between the levels of government. The article analyzes the shortcomings and contradictions of legal regulation of the distribution of functional and expenditure responsibilities between local authorities in the Budget Code of Ukraine and the Law of Ukraine "On Local Self-Government in Ukraine". That leads to a lack of the government's responsibility for a specific function. It is proved that, due to the above mentioned deficiencies, almost a fifth of the expenditures of local budgets are financed contrary to the Budget Code of Ukraine. The author proposes various guidelines to improve the distribution of functions between the village, district and regional levels of local government based on the application, in addition to the principle of subsidiarity, of the principle of financial capacity of local communities and economies of scale criteria and externalities of certain types of public goods. The next step towards fiscal decentralization should be the redistribution of revenue sources between the different levels through the consistent application of the principle of equivalence.
The mathematical concept of Bitcoin network was introduced in the year 2008. by a person, or group of people under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. During the next year, the first implementation of software for supporting Bitcoin transactions was put into operation. Today, it supports more than 70,000 daily transactions, and market value in the last five years has reached roughly $ 7 billion. Therefore, it can be easily seen that that there is a specific need for the application of new forms of digital payment in electronic commerce
In today’s digital world digital money has become a reality. With the introduction of Bitcoin and this new branch of digital currency, cryptocurrency, digital money has begun competing with traditi ...
V okviru diplomskega dela je bila izdelana informacijska resitev, ki omogoca izvajanje razlicnih trgovalnih strategij nad kriptovaluto Bitcoin. Podprte borze so Bitstamp, Btc-e ter MtGox. Na podrocju tehnicne analize za Bitcoin že obstajajo razne resitve, ki trgovalcem pomagajo pri trgovanju in jim svetujejo s pomocjo tehnicnih indikatorjev in vzorcev. Vendar ima vsaka resitev svoje slabosti, ki se jih je želelo odpraviti. Razvita je bila spletna aplikacija v tehnologiji Node.js, ki poleg izvajanja strategij na zgodovinskih podatkih za vsako podprto borzo ponuja se prikaz grafa vrednosti kriptovalute skozi cas z japonskimi svecniki ter grafa globine trga skupaj s knjigo narocil. Uporabnik ima možnost implementirati tudi lastno strategijo. Trgovalni podatki, ki so potrebni za delovanje spletne aplikacije in morajo biti osveženi, se s podprtih borz pridobivajo preko vmesnikov API s pomocjo javanskih programov in shranjujejo v podatkovno bazo MongoDB.
Razsirjenost uporabe virtualnih denarnih valut se v zadnjem casu naglo povecuje, kar napeljuje na potrebo po podrobnejsi seznanitvi z njimi. Virtualne denarne valute, ki iz tehnicnega vidika ponujajo relativno dovrsen in delujoc sistem, obenem prinasajo stevilne negotovosti na podrocju njihovega umescanja v obstojece zakonodajne okvire. Zakonodajalci in pravni strokovnjaki po svetu so sele pred kratkim zaceli odkrivati ta fenomen. V diplomskem delu je iz pravne, ekonomske in tehnicne plati predstavljen sistem virtualnih denarnih valut s poudarkom na valuti bitcoin. Sirok vpogled v delovanje sistema je podlaga za razumevanje zakonodajnih procesov, ki bodo sooblikovali prihodnost virtualnih denarnih valut. Diplomsko delo povzema del zakonodajnih in regulacijskih procesov v razlicnih pravnih redih, ki na teoreticni in prakticni ravni skusajo vkljuciti virtualne denarne valute v urejene pravne okvire.
EnglishThis paper looks at the Federal Republic of Germany in comparison with other federations in view of the basic federal idea and the distribution of competences and powers between federation and Lander. It sheds light on the tensions of decentralization and unitarization. Furthermore, the constitutional arrangements for financing federal and Lander levels are explained more in detail. And finally the paper raises a current issue: the German Finance Constitution in need of reform. francaisCet article se penche sur la Republique federale d'Allemagne, comparee a d'autres federations pour ce qui est de l'idee federale de base et de la repartition des competences et des pouvoirs entre la federation et les Lander. Il met en lumiere les tensions de la decentralisation et de l'unitarisation. En outre, il explique plus en detail les dispositions constitutionnelles relatives au financement au niveau federal et des Lander. Enfin, il souleve une question actuelle: la Constitution allemande des finances doit etre reformee.
This paper analyzes cryptocurrencies as financial instruments. Firstly, we introduced the main features of cryptocurrencies and summarized the brief history. We found out that price of the most famous cryptocurrency Bitcoin follows the hypothesis of efficient markets and it immediately react on publicly announce information. Furthermore, Bitcoin can be seen as standard economic good that is priced by interaction of supply and demand on the market. These factors can be driven by macro financial development or by speculative investors, but there weren't found any significant impact of these factors on price of Bitcoin. CAPM shows the high risk of cryptocurrencies, but it could be still good instrument for diversification.
The development and orientation of bit-coin is the forefront of currency issue for it is directly related to the currency position of bit-coin and affects the progress direction of the world economy. At present, there are serious differences in people's discussion about the orientation of bit-coin, the typical representation of which is that they do not have a thorough understanding of the basic properties of bit-coin, neither is there a legal orientation for it, and especially that is a lack of the basis of methodology of various research. All these have been hindering the application and progress of bit-coin. By discussion the current classification and future development of bit-coin, we believe that the generation of bit-coin is a reflection of the Internet economy.
In the present research Project is characterized in the budget applied to the environmental local system in Dosquebradas city, to develop an assessment about the impact in the environmental economic inversion, thinking strategies to improve processes and tools for the management, tracing and evaluation about the environmental inversion.
The national environmental system (SNA) is established by the 99 law from 1993, it is characterized for a decentralized structure, democrative and participative. Its function is dedicated to the environmental management in Colombia and the expectations are based in the foundation or coordinated and decentralized actions of the local and regional government, participation of the ethnicities and citizenship in general, around the sustainable development in the income, social and environmental aspect. The formal structure to finance the system has different instruments and financing options to the local, regional and national levels. The own income of the autonomous corporations and the urban environmental authorities are the most stable and significant sources of the system. It includes: a percentage of the property tax collects in the towns, capital resources, a percentage of the sales from the energy companies, general participations systems, incomes from gods and services, the retributive and compensatory rates and interinstitucional agreements. Most of the percentage of participation of property tax and capital resources. In the local level the environmental inversion that concentrates resources from the general participation system, which supplies the local environmental management unit (UGAM) and other contribution of own sources.
The thesis aims to identify the potential use of a cryptocurrency in the international trade and the level of fulfillment of that potential. First of all, the thesis describes how cryptocurrencies work. In the second part, the potential of a cryptocurrency is investigated. In the third part, the market of the most used cryptocurrency - Bitcoin is analyzed. The thesis finds out to what extent Bitcoin is used nowadays and whether bitcoin as a cryptocurrency fulfills its potential.
Jedan od fenomena tehnoloskog razvoja u danasnjem svijetu financija odnosi se na virtualne valute i njihove novcane sustave (virtualne valutne sheme), ciji primjer je bitcoin. Bitcoin predstavlja u potpunosti decentraliziranu digitalnu valutu, za ciju kontrolu nije zadužena nijedna sredisnja banka te koja omogucuje odvijanje transakcija bez upotrebe bilo kakvih posrednika. Ovaj rad daje uvid u osnovne karakteristike bitcoina, promatra ga kroz monetarne aspekte te analizira njegovu relevantnost za nositelje monetarnih politika. Analizirana literatura ukazuje da bitcoin ispunjava jedino funkciju novca kao sredstva razmjene, dok ostale funkcije u ovom trenutku ne ispunjava. Nadalje, zbog jos uvijek relativno male likvidnosti i malog broja korisnika, njegov znacaj za nacionalne i globalni financijski svjetski sustav jos uvijek je marginalan. Isto tako ne predstavlja ni prijetnju za nositelje monetarnih politika ni po pitanju cjenovne stabilnosti, kao ni po pitanju financijske stabilnosti i stabilnosti sustava placanja. Ipak, treba upozoriti da bitcoin zbog sve veceg tehnoloskog napretka i dostupnost Interneta, rasta elektronske trgovine, kao i nižih transakcijskih naknada koje pruža, zaprima sve veci broj korisnika, sto mu daje određenu perspektivu u buducnosti. Zbog toga ga treba pratiti, nadzirati i regulirati.
A penz tarsadalmunkkal egyutt fejlődott. Formaja es a vele szemben tamasztott kovetelmenyek az időben folyamatosan valtoztak. Mara az internet elterjedese megkovetelte a penz egy uj fajtajanak kialakulasat, amelynek eredmenyekent jott letre az e-penz, majd 2009-ben jelent meg az első kriptovaluta, a Bitcoin. A dolgozat celja a Bitcoin kockazati faktorainak meghatarozasa es az egyes orszagok allasfoglalasainak tanulmanyozasa. E ket cel fele haladva, azonban ravilagitok egyeb fontos kerdesekre is. Valaszt adok arra, hogy milyen tenyezők befolyasoljak leginkabb a kozponti szervek viszonyulasat a Bitcoinhoz, megmutatom, hogy mely orszagokban centralizalodik felhasznaloi kore, es felvazolom, hogy milyen jovőbeli lehetősegek allnak előtte. A dolgozat utolso fejezeteben hazank szerepvallalasarol is beszamolok, illetve megbecsulom orszagunk lakossaganak a temaban jartassagat, ismeretsegenek melyseget.
A dolgozat első szekciojat elmeleti felvezetessel inditottam. A kesőbbi ok-okozati kapcsolat megertesehez szukseges ismereteket itt foglaltam ossze. Behataroltam, illetve megkulonboztettem a modern allam es a kozponti bank funkcioit, majd a penz definialasara tertem ra, annak kialakulasi folyamatait irtam le. Vegezetul ravilagitottam arra, hogy nem minden uj „penz” kerul elfogadasra, erre szolgaltak peldaul a Liberty Dollar, az E-gold es a Liberty Reserve esetei, amikor a kozponti hatalom nem fogadta el azok műkodeset, s ellehetetlenitette letezesuket. Tovabba be lettek mutatva a kriptovalutak jelentősebb versenytarsai, igy a PayPal, a Google Wallet, es a GoldMoney, mely utobbi sikeresseget egy korabbi, nevezetesen az E-gold műkodesi elv lemasolasanak es annak tovabb fejlesztesenek koszonheti.
A masodik egyseget a „kriptovaluta”, mint fogalom meghatarozasaval kezdtem es bemutattam meghatarozo valtozatait. A lenyegi kulonbseguk, – az előző rendszer penzeihez kepest – hogy műkodesuk peer-to-peer eljarasra epul, ebből kifolyolag nincs kozponti kibocsatojuk, a tranzakcioik nevtelenul mennek vegbe. Kozuluk a legjelentősebb, a legnagyobb ertekkel a Bitcoin rendelkezik, kozel e piac 90 %-at fedi le, s igy nagyobb elemzesek ala ezt vetettem. Első lepesben targyaltam jellegzetessegeit, előnyeit es hatranyait. Megallapitasra kerult, hogy a legnagyobb negativuma, az hogy, nehezen illik bele a penz definiciojaba magas volatilitasa es igy a bizalom kialakulasanak hianya miatt.
A dolgozat kovetkező reszeiben a Bitcoin arfolyamesesei mogott allo faktorok kerultek beazonositasra: igy az elutasito allamok allasfoglalasai, s a hacker tamadasok. Azt felteteleztem, hogy a sikeres hacker tamadasok szama a jovőben redukalodni fog, mivel a jelen
hibait orvosoljak, igy egyre kisebb felulet marad vedtelenul. Emiatt az allami allasfoglalasok analizalasara helyeztem a nagyobb hangsulyt. A komolyabb elemzesek elvegzese előtt azonban szűkitettem a megfigyelt orszagok szamat es egy becslesi modellt allitottam fel, ami alapjan a Bitcoin kliensek letoltesi szamabol ki lehet kovetkeztetni, hogy azok felhasznaloi mely regiokba tomorulnek. A kapott eredmenyek fuggvenyeben ugy veltem, hogy csak – centralizaltsagot nezve – az ot legjelentősebb orszag hozzaallasat szukseges elemezni, amelyek a kovetkezők voltak: az USA, Kina, Oroszorszag, Nemetorszag es Anglia. A vizsgalatok elvegzese utan azt a kovetkeztetest vontam le, hogy a zartabb gazdasaggal műkodő allamok inkabb elutasitoak, mig a nyitottabb piacu orszagoknal jellemzően pozitiv hozzaallas figyelhető meg. A negativ allasfoglalast kialakito legjelentősebb szempont a Bitcoin anonimitasa volt. Ez onmagaban nem is jelentene problemat, viszont ez a tulajdonsaga vonzza az illegalis celra (ugymint: penzmosas, kabitoszer, fegyver vasarlas stb…) hasznalo szemelyeket. A jovőbeli meglatasaim szerint viszont ez a nevtelenseg csokkenni fog, hiszen mar most is megjelentek olyan, a Bitcoin kore epulő technikak, vallalkozasok – peldaul Bitcoin ATM, Cryptex Card – amelyek ternyeresevel, nagyobb esellyel lesznek beazonosithatoak a ketes tranzakciokat kezdemenyezők szemelyazonossaga.
Vegul hazank kerult a vizsgalat kozeppontjaba, melynek eredmenyeit roviden osszefoglalom. Magyarorszag – felhasznaloi taborat tekintve – nem tartozik az elmezőnybe es gazdasagi helyzetunkre tekintettel meg a kriptovalutak jelentős elterjedese eseten sem valoszinű, hogy ebben a kesőbbiek soran valtozas lenne. Allasfoglalast az MNB meg nem tett, egyszer adott ki kozlemenyt a Bitcoinra vonatkozoan, amiben annak kockazatossagara hivta fel a figyelmet. Ez azonban nem tekinthető velemenynyilvanitasnak, azaz elhatarolodasnak, mivel lathattunk erre hasonlo peldat Nemetorszag eseteben, ahol megiteleseim szerint pozitivan fogadtak a Bitcoint es a hozza hasonlo kriptovalutakat.
Osszefoglalva, a Bitcoin, mint fejlesztes, amilyen korainak nevezhető, olyan gyorsan valt „hiresse”, hatalmas felhasznaloi tabora lett rovid időn belul, s emiatt erteke is rohamos emelkedesnek indult. Egyre surgetőbbe valt a kormanyok szamara a kore epulő jogi keretek kialakitasa, vagy eppen annak mindennemű megtagadasa, a Bitcoin betiltasa. Az egyes orszagokban kialakitott allasfoglalasok megosztottsagat, főkent a Bitcoin anonimitasa okozza, amellyel sokan elnek vissza. A jovőbe tekintve azonban van lehetőseg, ennek a nevtelensegnek a folyamatos csokkentesere. Ennek eredmenyekent az egyes kormanyszervek megerősithetik pozitiv allasfoglalasaikat, illetve gyarapodhat az elfogadok szama, viszont a mar elhatarolodott allamok hozzaallasanak megvaltozasat nem tartom valoszinűnek.
Russia and Soviet political economy
Economic and Technological Developments in Russia
Hungarian Social, Economic and Educational Studies
Cloud computing is the vast computing utility, where users can remotely store their data into the cloud so to have the benefit of the on-demand availability of huge and different applications and services from a shared pool of configurable computing resources.Cloud-based outsourced storage space reduces the patron load of storage management. It also reduces the maintenance load of customer by providing a comparably low-cost, scalable, locationindependent platform.This new model of data hosting service commence a new security challenges, which requires an independent auditing service which audit the data integrity of cloud. There are different existing auditing services available in cloud which audit data integrity remotely in static motion but these are not applicable whenever data is dynamically updated in cloud. Since it require efficient and secure dynamic auditing method for data owner. However in cloud, the clients no have direct physical possession of data. It shows client faces different formidable risk like missing or corruption of data. To keep away from the security and integrity risk of data, audit services are essential to ensure the integrity and availability of outsourced data and to achieve digital forensics and credibility on cloud computing.Provable data possession (PDP), which is a cryptographic technique for verifying the integrity of data without retrieving it at an untrusted server, can be used to realize audit services. In this paper, profiting from the interactive proof system, we address the construction of an interactive PDP protocol to prevent the fraudulence of prove (soundness property) and the leakage of verified data (zero-knowledge property).
Ma. Hilda Rodales Trujillo, Francisco José Villazán Olivarez, Mario Zamora
The economic problem for many public companies, responsible for providing the water service to human concentrations is high risk. The weaknesses and strengths of the organization and the threats and opportunities that the environment offers require detailed analysis for decision making. The establishment of the level of growth of the Utility of Water and Wastewater shall be supported to reduce their risks. The process of decentralization and divestiture of public bodies such conditions has led to completely new water companies. This process involves gradually reaching autonomy of public agencies. This paper shows a financial analysis of a body of water operator as a basis for achieving sustainable growth. One important result obtained in the analysis is that growth is being financed by the utilities is 56.92%. Thus, a very important part is financed with external resources.
This thesis deals with a theme of the acurrent form of the French theater network, especially its financing and its possition in the cultural policy of the French State. Thesis describes the types of theater institutions and their functioning. The main part is devoted to the types of subsidies, their distribution and criteria for obtaining them. The thesis also briefly charts the process of dramatic decentralization in France and its consequences.
Nowadays,our country's agriculture development is at its critical period of transformation and upgrading,the family farm is one of the effective measures to solve the problem of excessive decentralization management of household contract responsibility system.The authors introduced the development of family farm and analyzed the existing problems and causes from aspects of revenue, production efficiency,operators' quality and financing channels.Then the corresponding countermeasures were proposed from aspects of perfecting land transfer mechanism,broadening farmers' income channels, optimizing infrastructures of family farm,perfecting socialized service system and training system,and broadening financing channels.
Profit - one of the main sources of financial resources of enterprises, the formation of centralized and decentralized funds. The profit is the formation of a significant amount of budgetary resources of the state are financed expansion of enterprises, financial incentives for workers. The planning and profit should be concerned not only labor collectives of enterprises, but also the country as a whole.