In this short note we show that the Bitcoin network can allow remote parties to gamble with their bitcoins by tossing a fair or biased coin, with no need for a trusted party, and without the possibility of extortion by dishonest parties who try to abort. The superfluousness of having a trusted party implies that there is no house edge, as is the case with centralized services that are supposed to generate a profit.
The cloud storage offers users with infrastructure flexibility, faster deployment of applications and data, cost control, adaptation of cloud resources to real needs, improved productivity, etc. Inspite of these advantageous factors, there are several deterrents to the widespread adoption of cloud computing remain. Among them, security towards the correctness of the outsourced data and issues of privacy lead a major role. In order to avoid security risk for the outsourced data, we propose the dynamic audit services that enables integrity verification of untrusted and outsourced storages. An interactive proof system (IPS) with the zero knowledge property is introduced to provide public auditability without downloading raw data and protect privacy of the data. In the proposed system data owner stores the large number of data in cloud after e encrypting the data with private key and also send public key to third party auditor (TPA) for auditing purpose. TPA in clouds and it's maintained by CSP. An Authorized Application (AA), which holds a data owners secret key (sk) and manipulate the outsourced data and update the associated IHT stored in TPA. Finally Cloud users access the services through the AA. Our system also provides secure auditing while the data owner outsourcing the data in the cloud. And after performing auditing operations, security solutions are enhanced for the purpose of detecting malicious users with the help of Certificate Authority.
Bitcoin is the world's first decentralized digital currency. Its main technical innovation is the use of a blockchain and hash-based proof of work to synchronize transactions and prevent double-spending the currency. While the qualitative nature of this system is well understood, there is widespread confusion about its quantitative aspects and how they relate to attack vectors and their countermeasures. In this paper we take a look at the stochastic processes underlying typical attacks and their resulting probabilities of success.
Setting the context The constitution of Finland stipulates that society must guarantee adequate social, health and medical services for each of its 5.3 million inhabitants, and promote the health of the population. Due to decentralized governance, responsibility for financing long-term care for older people rests heavily on the shoulders of 336 relatively independent local authorities (municipalities), as does the delivery of long-term care services. Obliged by law to provide long-term care services for older dependent people, these municipalities are free either to provide services themselves or to purchase them from various for-profit or not-for-profit providers. Historically, municipalities have tended to rely on providing their own services. According to the Statistical Yearbook on Social Welfare and Healthcare (National Institute for Health and Welfare, 2010), 87 per cent of all long-term care days in residential facilities were produced in public facilities, 10 per cent in not-for-profit private facilities and only 3 per cent in for-profit private facilities. In contrast, when it comes to sheltered housing for older people, officially known as ‘service houses’ or ‘sheltered housing’, only 42 per cent of long-term care days were furnished by public providers while the private sector provided 32 per cent of care days in not-for-profit facilities and 26 per cent in for-profit facilities. Chronic care hospitals, known as ‘health centres’, are predominantly public (95 per cent). Recent statistics are not available for home care. In all these types of facilities municipalities are responsible for monitoring care but they are aided in this task by other entities. The National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health (known as Valvira), supervised by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, undertakes a national supervisory role, together with six Regional State Administrative Agencies (AVI).
Kai Leichsenring, Frédérique Lamontagne-Godwin, Andrea E. Schmidt, Ricardo Rodrigues · 5 authors
The emerging Austrian long-term care system in the context of a federal constitution In Austria, long-term care started to become acknowledged as a specific field of social and health policies during the 1980s, when a debate about long-term care allowances was initiated by people with disabilities acquired during their working age. The ensuing reform was marked by the legacies of the traditional Austrian welfare regime, by the federal constitution and the clear-cut distinction between the health and social care systems. The decentralized governance of health and social care in Austria has been based on two distinct principles. On the one hand, healthcare is a part of the social insurance system that is primarily regulated by the federal government, financed by contributions and administered by the self-governed health insurance agencies at federal and regional levels. The regional governments ( Bundesländer ) are involved as planners, managers and co-financers of hospitals (Hofmarcher and Quentin, 2013). On the other hand, the principle of subsidiarity has been applied to the areas of disability, social and long-term care with respective responsibilities assigned by constitutional law to the nine regional governments. Their activities are funded from general taxes that are centrally levied and distributed according to defined criteria. In practice, this means that, if patients have been assessed as being in need of long-term care, they have to rely on their own assets and/or means-tested social assistance from the local or regional authorities (Ganner, 2008).
In 2009, an innovative form of digital currency premiered in the marketplace — Bitcoin. Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer payment network developed by Satoki Nakamoto (Nakamoto). Nakamoto created Bitcoin to be the ultimate digital currency, meaning no governmental oversight, central database, or tracking system. Bitcoin, a so-called “cryptocurrency,” is a digital currency with encrypted messages that are not accessible to third parties. Bitcoin is leading the cryptocurrency market with pioneering technology concepts such as limited distribution and secure information system.
The Implementation of the Indonesian government policy on regional autonomy that was effectively commenced since 1 January 2001, is considered as a very democratic policy and fulfilling aspects of real decentralization. Decentralization itself aims to improve the welfare and public services, development of democracy life, justice, equity, and the maintenance of harmonious relations between the central and regional as well as between regional and regional. Regional Revenue (PAD) are all local revenues derived from the native of economic resources. General Allocation Fund (DAU) is fund that sourced from the state budget allocated to bring equity finance capabilities among regions to fund the needs of the region in the implementation of decentralization .This research aimed to 1) determine the amount of PAD and DAU in each District / City Eks Karisedanan Kedu, 2) to find out whether PAD will impact towards the Regional Expenditure Budget (APBD) of District/City Eks Karisedanan Kedu, 3) to find out whether the DAU will impact the Regional Expenditure Budget of District/City Eks Karisedanan Kedu. The observed variables in this research are PAD, DAU and APBD Year 2001-2011. The data that have been obtained is secondary data, then the data is analyzed by using multiple linear regression analysis methods and F examination. The results of the research are: From those six Regional Level II Eks Karisedanan Kedu, there are four areas namely Magelang City, Purworejo District, Temanggung District and Wonosobo District have Regional Expenditure Budget that is highly supported by its each PAD. It can be seen from the amount of the regression coefficients and the role of PAD in sequentially as follows; b1 the amount for Wonosobo District is 7,114; b1 for Magelang City is 6.697; b1 for Temanggung District is 4,621; b1 for Purworejo District is 4.532. Infact, the role of PAD towards Regional Expenditure Budget for Magelang District and Kebumen District is negative; The dominant role of the DAU towards Regional Expenditure Budget is located in Magelang District, Kebumen District, then followed by Purworejo District, Temanggung District and Wonosobo District. It can be seen from the amount of the coefficients as follows; b2 the amount for Magelang District and Kebumen District is 1,562; b2 for Purworejo District is 1,012 ; b2 for Temanggung District is 0.944; b2 for Wonosobo District is 0.904;Based on the R Square for each Local Government District / City Eks Karisedanan Kedu as follows; Magelang City = 0.824; Magelang District = 0.966; Purworejo District = 0.974; Kebumen District = 0.966; Temanggung District = 0.990 and Wonosobo District = 0.985. Based on the figures above, it can be concluded that the average for each District Local Government / City Ex Residency Kedu, has Regional Expenditure Budget that is financed by more than 96 % of PAD and DAU, while the remaining is less than 3.5 % came from other income . Unless Regional Expenditure Budget of Magelang City which is 82.4%, is financed by PAD and DAU, while the remaining is 17.6 % came from.other.income.Keywords : budget , revenue and DAU.
The main goal of this work is the design and analysis of passive components employing metamaterial structures and in particular the wire medium metamaterial. Although there has been a lot of research interest in the physics of such metamaterial structures, there are not many resources available describing the behaviour of classical components, such as waveguides and cavity resonators, that are formed by metamaterials. Therefore, the aforementioned widely used devices, are realized with the deployment of the "Fakirs bed of nails" and their performance is analyzed. Our motivation is to expand existing analytical models and their applications to commonly used passive electromagnetic components, with a view to explore potentially new applications. As a means of study analytical techniques together with numerical simulations and measurements were used. This thesis is structured in the following chapters. The first chapter is an introduction to the basic principles of electromagnetics and their use on the framework of metamaterials; as illustrations some state of the art applications are presented. The next chapter is a literature review covering the work that has been done in the area of our main research interest (i.e., the Fakir's bed of nails as a metamaterial). An overview of the mathematics describing its behaviour is given as well as applications of the proposed structure. Attention has been paid on the latest studies because they provide complete physical insight. Some results from this chapter are used later as background knowledge for the analysis of passive components. This chapter is intended to lay the foundations for the reader to continue reading the rest of this work without the need to look in the literature. Chapter three investigates the dispersion effects in parallel-plate waveguides with both plates being realized by the Fakir's bed of nails. This chapter serves as an example as to how the Fakir's bed of nails can be used to form components. An analytical solution describing the behaviour of the waveguide is presented and compared against full wave numerical simulations. Chapter four presents a theoretical study of the resonant behaviour of metallic nanorods. A clear analogy between the coupled rods and the split rings/split squares is shown. The decline in the resonant frequency as the gap decreases, previously described in terms of self-capacitance, is interpreted by surface plasmons coupled across the gap. Chapter five presents a new enabling technology for implementing tunable rectangular waveguide components and circuits with the use of 2D and 3D metamaterials; a holey metal surface and wire media, respectively. As proof of concepts, results for tunable rectangular waveguide filters are presented with the use of pin block inductive irises and capacitive posts. Furthermore, by adapting the traditional metal-pipe rectangular waveguide for tunability, regions of the solid metal walls are replaced by holey metasurfaces. Prototype tunable structures were measured for verification and good agreement is achieved between full-wave numerical simulations and measurements. Chapter six analyzes a radically new design of waveguide verification device, suitable for measuring instruments such as Vector Network Analyzers. The device is designed to enable its roperties to be changed, by known amounts, after the device has been connected to the system that requires verification. The performance of the device is based on introducing relative changes in the transmitted and reflected signals and so is insensitive to errors introduced by waveguide flange imperfections. This makes the technique, in principle, ideally suited for waveguide VNAs operating at millimeter- and submillimeter-wave frequencies where these flange errors can dominate the measurements. A verification device is designed, simulated and tested in WR-15 waveguide (50-75 GHz). The last part of this thesis presents a rigorous analysis of lossy spherical cavity resonators starting from first principles. The electromagnetic field inside the spherical cavity is expanded in normal waveguide modes and the eigenfrequencies of the cavity resonator are obtained analytically by enforcing the appropriate boundary conditions at the cavity wall. Unlike perturbation techniques, used when low losses are present, there are no inherent limitations in the presented analysis and, therefore, its applicability range is much broader. Exact analytical results, acting as a benchmark reference standard, are compared to those generated independently by two commercial full-wave simulation software packages (HFSS and COMSOL). When the wall transforms from being a perfect electrical conductor to free space, as its intrinsic conductivity decreases from infinity to zero, it is found that the eigenmode solvers with both software packages increasingly fail. With both software packages, all possible modeling strategies have been investigated and their associated limitations identified. Moreover, a plane-wave approximation model is proposed that accurately predicts the numerical simulation results.
Analisa a moeda virtual bitcoin em relacao ao contexto economico em que vivemos. Atraves da ocorrencia dos ciclos de crises economicas e a evolucao da tecnologia da informacao e dos meios virtuais e suas redes, e identificada uma busca pela liberdade e eficiencia cada vez mais forte. Com isso, a discussao pela descentralizacao dos meios de pagamento e oferta de moeda entra em pauta, e a bitcoin se destaca como uma nova forma de fazer transferencias, servindo tambem como meio de troca sem intermedio governamental e sem fronteiras politicas. A pesquisa abordou as premissas da Escola Austriaca para analisar a evolucao do invento como meio de troca, assim como a sua aplicabilidade dentro da teoria e na economia real, levantando questoes sobre sua utilizacao ate o momento atual e seu futuro.
The political, social and administrative environment facing to the Korean Policing System in recent years is changing with a high speed. After the implementation of the local autonomy system in Korea, various tasks for the decentralization were proposed by the successive governments. The introduction of the Municipal Police System was proposed as part of the tasks for local autonomy system and the decentralization, and every governments intended to promote the Municipal Police. The purpose of this study is to prescribe the basic structure and scope of duty of the Municipal Police and other necessary matters therefor for the democratic management and operation, and efficient performance of duty of the Municipal Police. To ensure the success of an Municipal Police System, the promotion of the following is needed: The introduction of wide-area Municipal Police System may be required to support the security of local administration and supplement the incomplete local self-government. This is to introduce and implement the Municipal Police System as police governance capable of performing community policing by connecting self-government education and fire service. The Municipal Police System should be under a municipal or provincial governor’s direct control. A close relationship with related organizations should be maintained in terms of supply of manpower. It is important to build an intimate, cooperative relationship, distribution of police Affairs with National Police System. It is very important to establish municipal police committees which keep neutral and fair. And the important matter shall undergo deliberations and resolutions by the Municipal Police Committee. It is required to allow each local government to exercise wide powers over its personnel management and budget administration of the police and for the State to provide financial support for local governments which are in bad fiscal circumstances. At principle, all expense which is used in autonomous police the local self-governing group must charge. The Municipal Police shall, in conducting its duties, respect the liberty and rights of citizens in accordance with the Constitution and Acts, and maintain impartiality and neutrality as a civil servant of the entire citizens and shall not abuse authority vested in it.
Quality Control in Fact-Finding is, above all else, a very welcome addition to the literature on international fact-finding. Whilst there has been a marked increase in the number of fact-finding inquiries established in the last couple of decades,1 this has not been matched by a similar increase in the number of scholarly studies of such inquiries.2 In light of both the number and high-profile nature of such inquiries, the absence of scholarship focusing squarely on the contemporary role of inquiries up to the present day seems like an oversight. This collection, published in open access format by Florence-based, not-for-profit ‘academic EPublisher’ Torkel Opsahl (named after the late Professor Opsahl who himself briefly chaired the Commission of Experts for the Former Yugoslavia until his untimely death in 1993), attempts to address this lack of academic attention. The collection ostensibly sets out to ‘make a contribution to the emerging discourse on fact-finding mechanisms’ by ‘focusing specifically on quality awareness and quality improvement in non-criminal justice fact-work’ (at viii). Its accessible style, open access format, and the breadth of topics covered will attract the attention not only of international legal scholars, but practitioners and policy-makers too. In the opening chapter Marina Aksenova and Morten Bergsmo provide a helpful overview of the concept of international fact-finding itself and of the fact-finding missions established in recent decades. The authors define the concept of fact-finding broadly as a method of ascertaining facts used in international relations for differing purposes (at 2), before noting that traditionally there are three main purposes for establishing facts in international law. The first is the narrow purpose of fact-finding ‘in cases where differences of opinion on factual matters underlie a dispute between parties’, for which a procedure of inquiry was set out in the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, and which has fallen into desuetude.3 The second purpose is that of supervising the execution of international agreements typically carried out by the UN Specialized Agencies, and the third purpose is fact-finding for the purposes of Article 34 of the UN Charter, namely the power of the Security Council to investigate any situation or dispute that may endanger international peace and security. The overview of fact-finding missions established by principal UN organs, subsidiary organs, national governments, and various Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), helpfully set out in the form of a table in the opening chapter, provides a valuable introduction to the subject. Commentators in the past have lamented the lack of a standard operating procedure for fact-finding missions.4 However, a recurring theme of this collection is caution against standardization in light of the inherently context-specific nature of international fact-finding inquiries. Richard Goldstone states that ‘[i]t is folly to generalise about fact-finding missions. Each situation will have its unique features. What works with regard to one may well fail if applied to another’ (at 52). Similarly, Martin Scheinin argues in favour of the maintenance of clear functional distinctions between inquiries, in particular asserting that the ‘various mechanisms of mainstream human rights bodies that seek to establish state responsibility for human rights violations should not be subjected to the evidence requirements typical for determining individual criminal accountability’ (at 54). Particularly insightful contributions to the collection are those in which the authors are able to draw on their own practical experience, such as the chapters by Goldstone, Scheinin, Chris Mahony, and David Re. Goldstone’s contribution provides a potentially crucial insight into the mind of a man who has been heavily involved in a number of landmark fact-finding missions, both domestic and international. Much of Goldstone’s account focuses on two domestic inquiries that he led in South Africa, namely the Sithole Inquiry into the death of a member of the ANC in detention shortly before the release of Nelson Mandela from prison in February 1990, and the Sebokeng Inquiry into the action of police during a mass protest-match in March 1990. The relevance of the discussion of these domestic inquiries to a collection on international fact-finding is perhaps not immediately apparent; however Goldstone’s vast experience allows him to make a number of broad proposals for improving the quality of future international fact-finding missions. Amongst them the lessons learned from the Sithole Inquiry in which the transparent nature of the inquiry (which was held in a Johannesburg City Hall instead of a courtroom with no visible security and large public galleries) created a more ‘public-friendly’ atmosphere and insulated it from political interference, and the proposals for opening the appointment process for members of commissions to public scrutiny, are amongst the most helpful and practical proposals. Goldstone’s contribution is also instructive regarding his involvement in the UN Human Rights Council’s Gaza inquiry in 2009, as it illuminates the political machinations ‘behind the scenes’ that led to the formation of the inquiry and possibly is indicative of the political process that has led to the establishment of other commissions of inquiry. Similarly interesting is the issue of consent and cooperation – the refusal of Israel to cooperate with the inquiry clearly impeded the Commission’s operation and was apparently the cause of many of the ‘sleepless nights’ that Goldstone subsequently suffered (at 50). The lack of cooperation, coupled with new facts subsequently coming to light, put Goldstone in the position where he felt he had to row back on some of the inquiry’s factual findings in a Washington Post opinion-editorial. This episode cautions against reliance on any findings-of-fact derived from an inquiry with restricted access to the area investigated, and a resultant need to rely to a much greater extent on secondary sources and press reports. The critical remarks of Wu Xiaodan that Goldstone’s change of heart and the furore surrounding Professor Christine Chinkin’s alleged bias had cast some doubt on the credibility and impartiality of the Goldstone Report provide a useful counterpoint to Goldstone’s chapter (at 201) although an even more robust critique was perhaps warranted. Similarly, Scheinin draws on decades of practical experience in his contribution dealing with fact-finding in the context of treaty-based human rights mechanisms and the Special Procedures of the UN Human Rights Council. Scheinin’s contribution provides a helpful typology of the fact-finding apparatus and organizational structure of treaty-based fact-finding mechanisms, including the reporting procedure, individual complaints, and inquiries. Perhaps the most useful part of this contribution is the section dealing with Special Procedures in which the thoughts of an experienced practitioner are key, given the nature of the topic that would otherwise be largely impenetrable to most. For instance, the contribution explores the two fact-finding functions of Special Rapporteurs, namely communications (letters) to governments and country visits. Scheinin is critical of the communications function, noting that the response rate to letters is low and the information gained from communications is such that they cannot be considered a fact-finding mechanism at all. However, Scheinin is able to draw on his own experience as Special Rapporteur, having paid visits to states such as Turkey and Tunisia, and is positive about governmental compliance with requests made by Special Rapporteurs, access to areas under investigation, and ultimately even the uncovering of facts that could later be used for a number of purposes including criminal prosecution. Among the most important contributions to the collection is that of Mahony dealing with the security implications for witnesses appearing before fact-finding commissions. This extended, detailed, contribution draws on the author’s own experience in Nepal, and both the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Special Court in Sierra Leone. Whilst having a relatively narrow focus on a small number of situations, the author’s own first-hand experience and the level of detail and practical examples provided allow important conclusions to be drawn regarding means of ensuring the safety of witnesses, including details of the legal regime needed for witness protection, consideration of the crucial issue of funding, and more practical issues such as personnel and the institutional location of the programme that could potentially be of use in the context of other commissions. David Re’s contribution is based on his involvement in the criminal courts in the Former Yugoslavia and Sierra Leone and poses a fundamentally important question: what did the ICTY trial and appeals chamber actually do with UN and NGO fact-finding reports? Interestingly, Re shows that relatively minimal (at least explicit) use was made of such factual findings by the ICTY chambers between 1994 and 2013. Most often such findings were utilized as investigative leads for the prosecutor (at 296). Further, Re argues that the findings-of-fact made by such inquiries are likely to be more politically and historically important than judicially influential (at 280). The conclusions to be drawn from this argument are not fully fleshed out, but it is submitted that it is fundamentally important for the future of international fact-finding that they are considered. Tackling more theoretical issues, Simon De Smet’s contribution addresses the theoretical foundations of fact-finding. He takes as his starting point that most fact-finders approach the subject intuitively; ‘[e]ven though they may display great care and circumspection in making their findings, they do not necessarily have a strongly developed understanding of what the underlying principles and concepts of fact-finding are’ (at 74). De Smet provides a helpful introduction to the epistemology of fact-finding and evidence (at 80) and takes us through important theoretical issues such as the epistemology of how beliefs can be justified, including both probabilistic or Bayesian epistemology and so-called ‘inference to best explanation’ or relative plausibility theory. In doing so De Smet seeks to provide the basis for improving the overall epistemic quality of fact-finding, without making any claims that doing so would in actual fact improve the accuracy of fact-finding in practice. De Smet tackles a wide array of the goals he has set for himself with relish, although one gets the impression that there is simply not enough space to do justice to the substantial number of important issues ranging from philosophical conceptions of probability to the epistemology of testimony, trustworthiness, competence, and cognitive consensus, to name just a few. While the author’s forthcoming monograph will provide a more in-depth analysis,5 in the context of this collection, it might have been better to choose a smaller number of discrete issues and explore them in greater detail, but this is a minor quibble. Despite claiming to deal with non-criminal justice fact-finding (at viii) international criminal law inevitably finds its way into the collection through the contribution by Dov Jacobs and Catherine Harwood which considers the use of international criminal law (ICL) by fact-finding commissions. More specifically, the contribution assesses the creep of international criminal law concepts into the work of fact-finding missions and considers the utility of ICL in general ‘outside the courtroom’. The contribution highlights a number of concerns regarding the use of such concepts in fact-finding inquiries, including the problematic use of the criminal law burden and standard of proof in non-judicial situations which raise issues of due process. For instance, cursory legal determinations of complex situations and divergent legal determinations between different commissions of inquiry have caused controversy in recent times.6 The contribution ultimately concludes that not only does the use of ICL concepts not help to solve some of the operational problems that fact-finding inquiries face, it in effect creates a number of new problems (at 353). Whilst this contribution complements excellent existing work in this field,7 the topic of fact-finding in international criminal law remains one of the most under-researched areas of fact-finding and further research in this area, where the personal liberty of individuals is at stake, is undoubtedly needed. Other contributions address selected issues including quality control in the context of truth and reconciliation (Liu Daqun at Chapter 5), how commissions of inquiry can provide international prosecutors with the background information they need on specific international criminal law situations (Lyal S. Sunga at Chapter 13), fact-finding difficulties encountered by NGOs (Wolfgang Kaleck and CarolijnTerwindt at Chapter 14), and the role of information technology in the work of fact-finding commissions (Ilia Utmelidze at Chapter 16). In the penultimate chapter Charles Garraway provides a contribution on the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission established under Article 90 of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which has never been used to date, but which could be of potential use in the future according to the author, although its competences are in some crucial respects limited in scope. Mention is made of these contributions in order to highlight the sheer breadth of the collection, which endeavours to cover so many discrete and diverse issues in relation to international fact-finding. Ultimately, Quality Control in Fact-Finding is a commendable attempt to address the paucity of literature in an area of international law that is seen as increasingly significant. Whilst a final concluding chapter drawing together some of the main themes and findings of the collection would have been welcome, it contains some genuinely useful contributions, in particular those in which the authors are able to draw on their own experience and those which attempt to systematize and make sense of the operation of international fact-finding. Marina Aksenova and Morten Bergsmo, Non-Criminal Justice Fact-Work in the Age of Accountability; Richard J. Goldstone, Quality Control in International Fact-Finding Outside Criminal Justice for Core International Crimes; Martin Scheinin, Improving Fact-Finding in Treaty-Based Human Rights Mechanisms and the Special Procedures of the United Nations Human Rights Council; Simon De Smet, Justified Belief in the Unbelievable; Liu Daqun, Quality Control in Truth and Reconciliation Processes; Fan Yuwen, Quality Control and the Mandate of International Fact-Finding; Isabelle Lassée, Coherence in the Design and Implementation of the Mandates of International Fact-Finding Commissions: Internal and External Dimensions; Wu Xiaodan, Quality Control and the Selection of Members of International Fact-Finding Mandates; Dan Saxon, Purpose and Legitimacy in International Fact-Finding Bodies; Chris Mahony, Witness Sensitive Practices in International Fact-Finding Outside Criminal Justice: Lessons for Nepal; David Re, Fact-Finding in the Former Yugoslavia: What the Courts Did; Dov Jacobs and Catherine Harwood, International Criminal Law Outside the Courtroom: The Impact of Focusing on International Crimes for the Quality of Fact-Finding; Lyal S. Sunga, Can International Criminal Investigators and Prosecutors Afford to Ignore Information from United Nations Human Rights Sources?; Wolfgang Kaleck and Carolijn Terwindt, Non-Governmental Organisation Fact-Work: Not Only a Technical Problem; Charles Garraway, Fact-Finding and the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission; Ilia Utmelidze, Information Technology and Quality Control in Non-Criminal Justice Fact-Work.
Reviewed by: The American West and the Nazi East: A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective by Carroll P. Kakel III Björn Krondorfer The American West and the Nazi East: A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective. By Carroll P. Kakel III. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Pp. xi + 299. Cloth $85.00. ISBN: 978-0230275157. Carroll Kakel’s monograph compares patterns of imperialism, colonialism, and genocide in Nazi Germany (1933–1945) and early America (1783–1890). This is a courageous undertaking, especially given the heated debates about the value of comparative analysis in genocide and Holocaust studies, as well as about the destruction of Native American life in the context of American history. Kakel proposes a “new ‘optics’” (7) that links the disparate histories of America’s westward expansion (“Manifest Destiny”) and Nazi Germany’s eastward expansion in search of Lebensraum. He argues that the study of comparative genocide and transnational colonialism helps us better grasp the “patterns, logics, and pathologies” (3) of national projects that combined territorial expansion with racial thinking, resulting in violent practices of exclusion, elimination, and forced assimilation. A comparison of expansionist ideologies of empire and settler colonialism, spatial conquest and racial cleansing, as well as frontier mentalities and genocidal practices align the histories of Early America and Nazi Germany in ways, Kakel contends, that suggest disquieting analogies. The book’s tripartite structure (“Continental Imperialism,” “Settler Colonialism,” “Frontier Genocide”) organizes the comparison along a continuum that begins with the formation of expansionist ideology and ends with practices of eliminationist violence. Nazi leaders regarded the East as Lebensraum to be conquered, settled, and colonized. For example, Karl Haushofer, a geopolitical theorist, influenced Adolf Hitler’s thinking in this regard, and Hitler’s self-description of as a Raumpolitiker (rather than as a Grenzpolitiker) echoes imperial ideologies that Kakel also sees at work in the more “aggressive” (30) Jacksonian version of America’s westward expansion. In fact, Nazi planners of Lebensraum policies referred to the “Wild East” as the America of the “Germanic peoples” (45). Intriguingly, Kakel pulls together a number of quotes by Nazi leaders in which they directly refer to America’s expansion to justify their own thirst for territory. But whether such occasional referencing constituted an “obsession for Hitler” (3), as Kakel claims, is not really backed up by empirical proof (e.g., a statistical analysis). Nazi ideology was certainly obsessed with the “Jewish question,” but was it really obsessed with the American West? Though the book does not provide a satisfying answer, a comparative analysis does reveal that planners of colonial practices looked at and learned from historical antecedents—including the treatment of indigenous populations considered expendable. Notions of space and race thus “became interlocking imperatives” (45). Each of the six chapters briefly introduces what is conceptually at stake (e.g., racial “othering,” colonization, genocide), presents historical antecedents of both early [End Page 228] American and German histories, and then discusses more specific developments. The two national histories are rigidly separated (first early America, then Nazi Germany) throughout the monograph; they are only brought together when briefly discussing similarities and differences at the conclusion of each chapter. This methodical approach not only makes for monotonous reading, but also results in unnecessary repetitions: specific information is reiterated (at times verbatim) and the main thesis repackaged in numerous variations. The book, which grew out of a doctoral thesis, would have greatly benefited from further shortening. Kakel’s thesis works best when investigating comparative patterns with regard to imperial notions of territorial conquest and settler colonialism, but is less persuasive with respect to genocide. When comparing the Nazi genocide of the Jews with the American destruction of its indigenous population, his language obscures rather than clarifies. At stake is the question of how systematic, intentional, and deliberate the early American campaign to dispossess and then eliminate Native Americans had been. On the one hand, Kakel claims intentionality; on the other hand, he is aware that genocidal practices in the American West differed considerably from the mass killings by the Nazis in the East. He calls what happened in America “government-sponsored genocidal wars of conquest,” which involved “deliberate genocidal intent to annihilate Indian[s]”—but then refers to the...
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The following reminiscence by Cedric Raine is the 10th autobiography in a series published in the Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. These have been solicited from senior members of the neuropathology community who have been noted leaders and contributors to neuroscience and to the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP) and have a historical perspective of the importance of neuropathology in diagnosis, education, and research. His is the first autobiography by a distinguished PhD member (as well as former president) of the AANP, highlighting the contributions and integral roles of basic neuroscientists in our Association. It is hoped that this series will entertain, enlighten, and present members of the AANP with a better sense of the legacy that we have inherited, as well as reintroduce our respected members as humans having interesting lives filled with adventures, joys, and sorrows, and allow them to present their lives in their own words. MNH, RAS “A man is the product of his thoughts. What he thinks he becomes.” Mahatma Gandhi Lacking a more original arresting opening, let me begin by saying that to be invited to join the list of esteemed neuropathologists featured in the Journal's Autobiography Series, following icons like Asao Hirano, Robert Terry, and Nicholas Gonatas, is both a privilege and a challenge. Never known for being conventional and sporting a background completely at odds with the standard training of most members of the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP), I would like to take off on a different foot by thanking my colleagues in the Association for welcoming and accepting me, among the first PhDs, into the fold as an Active Member. When Mike Hart rang me a few months ago asking me to prepare a piece for the Series, my knee-jerk reaction was to decline on the grounds of juvenility and inappropriateness. Recognizing that autobiographies usually represent one's own self-chosen, self- redacted reminiscences, I was in no hurry to wax solipsistic to the readership and my colleagues. As we spoke, however, I rationalized the issue by recalling how many years had flown by since I became involved with the AANP (actually, 44) and how my own development as an investigator had paralleled and benefited from my affiliation with the Association and its mouthpiece, the Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology (JNEN). Setting feelings of uncertainty aside and with Mike still on the line, I thought, “this is the academic body that gave me the legs to stand on in neuropathology; of course, I'm qualified; I'll do it.” So, for an autobiography garnished more with anecdotes than achievements, read on. I was born in May 1940 in Eastbourne, England, to a single mother; the vivid description of WWII events from her provided me with images difficult to distinguish from actual memories. She used to talk about the Dunkirk evacuation and the dogfights overhead between Spitfires, Hurricanes, and ME 109s, with their contrails slicing the summer sky, all occurring while I was in my push-chair. Moreover, this coastline was also the planned landing site for the German invasion barges waiting to depart Belgium, but thanks to the Royal Air Force and the Valiant Few, it never came to pass. Not surprisingly, Eastbourne residents were advised to evacuate to safer havens, particularly as German bombers driven from the London Blitz fled our airspace and jettisoned unspent bombs along the coast. My mother decided to return to her parents' home in Carlisle, Cumberland, 400 miles north, 8 miles south of the Scottish border. We arrived in Carlisle in 1942, unannounced and definitely not welcome. Apparently, she had left Carlisle about 10 years earlier under a cloud and had not been heard of since. However, her odyssey had ended; her funds had run dry and she had come home. Aunt Maureen, who is 7 years older than me, answered the doorbell and found her sister who she had never seen, standing on the doorstep with “a beautiful little boy in a green woolen suit with small pink flowers across the front.” We were admitted into the house by my grandmother; my grandfather was summoned from his victory garden and there followed an unpleasant confrontation ending with my grandmother (my life's best friend and savior), taking me by the hand out of the fray saying “T am going to put this young man through university, “ and she did. Shortly thereafter, real memories began to form. There were 4 sisters in the house; 3 of them rather like the ugly sisters of Cinderella constantly battled with my mother and abused me at their convenience. I was terrified; I used to hide a lot and developed a bad stutter, which stayed with me until I came to the States in the late 1960s. My mother kept my hair long and in a pageboy style (remember Cedric of “Little Lord Fauntleroy?) and had me attend dancing classes at the age of 3 (Fig. 1). About 12 months later, the hair came off, my mother took a war-related job, and I was released to the Carlisle streets to become a grubby member of the populace. The dance class of Florence Wilkinson (rear center), Carlisle, 1943. That's me, fifth from left, front row, hands on knees. Note pageboy hairstyle. My aunt Maureen (extreme right, in front of man) delivered me to the class. It was wartime and, like many cities in the United Kingdom, Carlisle was in the thick of it. The United States had by now entered the war (thank heavens!), and being a center for about 6 railroad companies and situated on the only road south from Glasgow (the main port for traffic from North America), everything had to come through Carlisle, much to the delight of the local kids. The roadside and railway embankments became our playgrounds as convoys and trains of US and Canadian troops, lines of gray-painted trucks with long trailers carrying airplanes with folded wings, and tanks (oh, the tanks!) trundled through the cobbled streets of Carlisle. Near our street was a long lay-by where tanks would stop as crews took a break. I can still smell the hot oily fumes. We would race like mad to them and climb aboard shouting, “Any gum, chum?” Our reward was usually sticks of Wrigley's gum and/or a Hershey bar—what a delight to kids from families on severe rationing! On 1 occasion, an American soldier, noticing my dirty face, gave me a bar of perfumed soap with which I ran home to give my mother who had not seen its like for some years. The war had a toughening effect on kids: fathers were not around, we lived in a matriarchal society, and we grew up fast. My grandmother, anxious to get me out of the house, walked me down to Brook Street School just after I turned 4 and enrolled me as a 5-year-old in the infants' class. That worked fine until I was to take the 11-plus examination, a to the at the age of and the to a education, at which were My age was and I was to to take the the following I the 11-plus some and a and a on the I and began by saying that I had to the to a a I thought, but was by a about in I still from I of from Brook Street the to 8 but years at Carlisle an in the It was of a at the were and (Fig. the age of well on the of and to to become an My mother no worked and I was by my age from the My grandmother put her foot down and to her she going to I to the following to join the to be for the which I me a to I was by a in by local who I had while (as I summer from the age of to a while to a few taking off for the of the I that I had been by of to become the of What a I thought, as I my for the long home. The following I at to for a my Carlisle School was I mad for about years (Fig. but to down in my to on the which I with a my at I had a with a Maureen (my who I had in in the of where I many at the home of an aunt and with Maureen was after she left and I entered the but after I entered my her and, a gave her my much of my at I had my Maureen to me on the as I and she through to become a at in in were and with a in and a to the and in the United Kingdom, I entered the I the and of on my to be for as a out to with no but 3 I gave up and took a as a in the a house in a of Carlisle. well for me until the I and the local a man who had the many of he would be the to get as and I was with I was in the of a of with a by a he at me the I released the it and the under the On on the he and to climb His hands and he more his on the more he it but I to the is I the Carlisle arrived and took his a had been for earlier the he had the down the road from the many thereafter, would come into the asking to who up and I would them the that it. was to months in and I gave up my as a About a after I left I a who me of a for an at the in The was to and its was I had read of American that featured and on by and in the of and I was with through an who was a of the I to and an was I arrived at the and was up to the of a house, through which where I was to my (Fig. The was to with me about my and my where I had about and I with I the and was a As I left his me to my of some with at a in long after I left the I turned a into a My and training me in I was to the and of the from in and in and became in and The was for basic and was by which many members to and were his His was on and on were and members were to like in their and would stop at to his on my a to the of a of from the community to a by that a he had had for The in the of a for a while he up a series of a of of and from and was to be by my and the left for the to return the following to the the entered my the some of the and the to The the were the was and thereafter, being with the left the by to the were and the became members became of had not of a who would have the was home to a of and among was and only the for to were the I 6 years in the I grew to my on and, I a PhD to he me the to a not to a of to a of and with many my own was not and many young as a of and bad like and we the to the to be the on. it would be to most of the was a and that his was the in the the however, he a he would a for my and me the me to the and and prepare the for When began to and was I was from he be However, as I became more in and and more his me as his unpleasant its ugly he who I to and with me that I would this for my it I never his to get me but it put a on many a after 4 years of Maureen 1 that she had a as a for me to get down to my PhD It worked and I the in 3 but its was a that it be of and that I was not to from the As would have decided to take a to from in and I took the as the to the for my with my own after he I the product to the and for to a as my that I had my and the as a When entered the I to the for me to the to the for at the to and walked became a an with out the I would home and Maureen, no On the 10th I and I of his His he his and later, the was with the the that the for PhD in the United a that the me, and an my to 3 the decided for no to from my much and around, I to the of to into the more but it The the as I was the came in and me with a that I was as of that I my was a and home. Not I came in and was about to attend the a in with its and The and I was a PhD in there was more to had me on a my would to about a in On of the the after my he out different from were and at the of a I to the and was a of was on the that 1 would the of the following The effect was that my PhD me to and a few later, he my a friend with a PhD in at a of and I was to in I decided to there was a of for in the United Kingdom, which was in the of a to the and the United I at 1 to on of the of my but the academic in the and were Maureen and I decided to the United and, I an of a with Robert Terry, an known at the of in the I it. had also heard about me from my friend a who had left for 1 in my as a in the had become a of and had about the to his he was advised to Maureen and I to come to the United I for the of with for the and took them to for in the with a my with and to the for and to to We had no but to put our house on the of it for the small from the going and funds in and for our in England, we in with miles later, in after I the for at the AANP in the to It was a from who had been about to to take up a in became of Neurology at the of me, the in the and me he would take in the of the to he the following to the United Our in were particularly I was from training my and the me advised me not to up and to that was to while on the with the down to and the as I the he entered the I was and that I stop and the to I to until I was began to I to and to with and I and, from that was an of and that a of it was on the I into had the with his the of the and I have vivid memories of I took the and some of the at his much and into the and more was and began for I kept and and he kept and I and to me to I was me and out as he the get for I heard more about this but he never me years later, I this to an of young as of a talk a were I a better than for the On my in the I delivered the to for and would the at the up and into to for our to the to the and to As I left the with my I to he to the of the which he me my training in in the United was of his as of the by an on from and with members and never a in On a arrived at with a Maureen and a to in research. My in was I only We were by who delivered to his in where we his and their 3 and where we stayed for while I in at and Maureen the to an The me into to who was in to took me to the of the I have little more than with into small at I still it how much neuropathology had from that small (the foot in product have been waiting for me, was the (Fig. with in at an in Our was no more than off to attend to while his for I would run the until a the was in I would to a I would my on and would a between the and that of a on of a on which I had also worked and published in been my he left, gave me a of where I the and friend and and a who would become my for in the My first was an to out for there was an of in and out of that small Mike and of them were about to and were to their on These were for the most in the with a of to and were well and with the best the was this from Carlisle in a still the with a an and little from to get a foot on the and not to I the found an a some on and after a little more than 1 at and much the left had a for and, my first I with and of of which would The with and, my I would the just to read and more and more and many for What a from and the into my just as and I (Fig. were a series of on and the AANP in walked into the and me an for an from the of me to prepare the and Experimental and he would the a and the to that The was and 3 (my own an and to the in our the was and and, the to me to at the me up to with a in of a senior to an to a young was my as an investigator at The in thanks to and my colleagues at my was and after into the I was to and an training for and funds for 3 a and and a My was to a home with and that would be to and who would be to on their rather than and of more than years in my was that my from and I was at the on the (Fig. and background with my of with I an for a training and a to which my of will the with and of my in the Raine Note the I was most to a with and that in on and left the 3 of much to our own his of he was there was and we never I also an with and our many contributions to the of the of on as became more this would into the of the and the of in a PhD was for into my at a as were in My into was more by my up with and our on in the much a and of the and most I have known in (Fig. late the the of also in my of which was with of my of the at from its in until his in (Fig. was a and and an the of and our we a of for the first of in the and the of from Moreover, we worked and many of in the and as began to take center I up with and members of his at my own and to and into and our into the of with and was with and which in the first of to in in and the of a of to to and in As we entered the the began to for neuropathology in as of the and as and as began to and as became and more as for our and the at AANP Neuropathology at was also about to a with to in a by the of the decided to but only would with both left, a was was no our was and members became and began to to our Neuropathology became a of a the for a while but and to join the in left for and the was to who the for a few but of the and the he to in the and to run a a of its former (Fig. my own on had been to the it me to my colleagues on. I to (Fig. I a with the of and had the of a who me my from the of the to in in I was to the of with a of from for and and a of by the of we entered the with a of which to Neuropathology and and The were also in my and were in and at of the best I with in the my and with and the of to a of and the most of my years at came through my to and an of and into the of by a and with and were to between to of became a of my the the of an of through my 1 present them in list will me for the German (the 4 with (the 4 with and in a with the following also training with Mike and all the I my thanks for the and into my I their was and I from them at As for some of my I he with from his to his and in (Fig. As for Terry, in 3 of and to to up with a with some by (Fig. was in fine and I was to his the many the at were as as in on a from The of Terry, and we have my and I am left with my to my who my my and my and for years. was my first and as I a for from through the a was with me from the late until ran the of the Journal of which I in from to and it and my (Fig. to I be my and in from to the present My would I be my training a of and the standard for me were to have in About 12 months into my at and I our first on the of in to and I was it was On the I the of was a for a to which I was I and with and I at the I my to the up front and my me into an a in a I with the much to their was I with and my first in The AANP been the for my academic and (Fig. and its was usually the of my of the at I was into from the at a were for Active The was into the most being the the Association to and by I was to the for the and after about 3 years of and we in the AANP that be admitted as Active many years thereafter, was and the basic by who would have on the of I a AANP and on and/or delivered and for 1 was to be being the of and the and the for to Neuropathology I on the of from to academic I have I more to the AANP than to the of a few lines on Maureen and I were never with of our but in while as a in a for Maureen was to a young boy with who had been abused and by his She became of and, he was for she decided we a home. So, in at the age of he entered our lives our and, a of we entered to read and had and a a home and developed a beautiful he worked as an in a a at which he that for began he Maureen, and he never let his get in the of his was with for 12 years and became a and member of our however, the on in his years and his many years on up with and he in thereafter, in Maureen was as having and, as a my at became I began to my to and in until Maureen her like a but after a she in 7 months we had from to Maureen to as a grandmother in the young of and having to in a and her an Maureen lived long to but was never well to from the would have I Maureen much in to the years we were it was of her that I was to it along the road to Neuropathology (Fig. I have just the first is in the center with Mike Hart Maureen, my and Maureen in as a me to my which I and a with I am in There on my for colleagues me and images for of still and I am more to attend So, me on the do and