Blockchain Papers

Kunjan Dhappa, Joel Fernandes, Arjun Gill

Blockchain is the new age internet equivalent evolution along with the rise of artificial intelligence they both are revolutionizing a new way of safer, faster, and government free interaction for real time financial verification. This study primarily investigates the role of these new age technologies in providing better security and transparent transactions in accounting systems related to crypto notably in decentralized finance (DeFi) ecosystems currently prevailing on solana, Ethereum and Base networks. These blockchain networks currently power billions of transactions in value using great techniques to ensure immutable, verifiable audit trails while removing any 3rd party interference In 2025 major accounting firms and compliance institutions will use AI-driven analytics, anomaly detection and predictive modelling to provide much better scope and structure of audit; this will help to decrease human errors and compliance delays by an estimate of 30%. AI along with blockchain technologies will provide real time decentralized monitoring and forensic analysis via smart contracts with include the major one such as ERC-20The combination of blockchain’s immutable ledger and AIs supremely adaptive intelligence creates a new wave of real time auditing right from retrospective verification to predictive ongoing assurance. However due to delays and legislative fragmentation issues and government ethical remain major obstacles for successful development. Finally our study demonstrates that the combination of Al with blockchain marks a fundamental change toward transparent, automated, and resilient accounting ecosystems capable of maintaining confidence in an increasingly digital and decentralized global economy.

Loso Judijanto, Usup Usup

This study does a bibliometric analysis of financial inclusion research within the framework of a sustainable economy, utilizing papers indexed in a prominent scientific database from 2000 to 2025. The study utilizes performance analysis and scientific mapping methodologies through VOSviewer and Bibliometrix to investigate publication patterns, prominent authors, institutions, countries, and networks of keyword co-occurrence. The findings indicate that financial inclusion and sustainable development form the primary conceptual core, intricately linked to economic growth, financial development, and sustainability. Contemporary research is mostly focused on digital issues, including fintech, digital financial inclusion, and decentralized finance, which progressively associate inclusive finance with environmental performance, green innovation, and the reduction of carbon emissions. Networks of international collaboration indicate that emerging economies, notably China, India, Pakistan, and South Africa, assume a prominent role, but such collaboration is predominantly localized rather than entirely global. The study elucidates the structure and history of this interdisciplinary domain, identifies significant research clusters and deficiencies, and delineates avenues for further exploration of inclusive and sustainable financial systems.

Joseph Natangwe Ilonga, Mercy Mwangala Ziezo

The fast growth of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies has turned smart cities into big data ecosystems for intelligent mobility, energetic efficiency and public services. But this increasing reliance on IoT data raises significant privacy issues because of the perpetually gathered sensor readings, inter-organisational sharing and algorithmic analyses. In this paper, we focus on the state-of-the-art IoT data-sharing methods that preserve privacy and protect recent progress in preserving privacy while sharing data in the IoT personal record by preserving statistical value. It combines traditional approaches, including anonymisation, differential privacy, federated learning, secure multiparty computation and homomorphic encryption with new technologies (e.g., blockchain-enabled governance, edge intelligence or zero-knowledge proofs) (Nguyen et al., 2023; Alrawais et al., 2024; Lin & Kuo, 2025). The paper analyses the impact of hybrid architectures combining edge-cloud cooperation and decentralised access control for improving data protection, in terms of not losing performance or interoperability. Conclusions: Summary of the main findings, Barriers to Implementation. This paper identifies several ongoing barriers, including computational expense, related to past research. Personal data while preserving its analytical worth. It combines cutting-edge technologies like blockchain-enabled governance, edge intelligence, and zero-knowledge proofs with traditional strategies like anonymisation, differential privacy, federated learning, secure multiparty computation, and homomorphic encryption (Nguyen et al., 2023; Alrawais et al., 2024; Lin & Kuo, 2025). The study investigates how hybrid architectures that incorporate decentralised access control and edge-cloud collaboration can improve data security without compromising interoperability or performance. The results point to enduring obstacles, such as interoperability, computational overhead, and regulatory compliance, especially in urban settings with limited resources. In order to integrate privacy-by-design principles into IoT analytics for smart city governance, the study suggests a multi-layered conceptual framework. To maintain public confidence in urban digital transformation, this framework places a strong emphasis on open data policies, citizen consent procedures, and the incorporation of cutting-edge cryptographic techniques. The information adds to the current discussion on how to balance privacy and innovation in smart cities and provides guidance for system architects, legislators, and municipal IT leaders who want to adopt IoT responsibly.

Gil-Hwan Park

Regarding recently increasing governance phenomena, this article examines the modern conception of ‘fiscal decentralization,’ drawing on previous major theoretical discussions over centuries especially from a perspective of political economy. As the financial and economic component of ‘autonomy,’ fiscal decentralization may embrace both the technocratic and systematic notion of ‘management’ and governmental and legitimate notion of ‘political power.’ In this regard, the essence of this political economic component of autonomy lies local governments’ endogenous growth in their economy and finance from internalizing external economies of scale under monopolistic competition among themselves through multilayered and pluralist ‘economic’ governance whose dynamics are nested constestingly within the central government. The representative political economic agent to determine the eventual allocation of resources in this dynamics is an innovated Tieboutian consumer-voter revealing preferences for local public goods according to their increasing ‘regional ability to pay’ (RAP) when external economies of scale are internalised to expand the ‘scale’ of regional economies or finances under monopolistic competition. This simplified new ‘monopolistic competition’ model of local public goods distinguishes the (long-run) fixed cost of local public fixed asset or (social overhead) capital from the scale-variant variable cost of local public service although its basic aggregate structure of linear function of output and consumption originates from the canonical functions of the ‘new economic geography.’ Our model of local public goods newly embraces externalities, and scale economies under monopolistic competition, although its welfare analysis, whose in-depth analytics and theoretical and policy implications are to be further investigated in subsequent research, have not presented.

Hassan Raza, Tsendayush Erdenetsogt, Muhammad Mohsin Kabeer, Muhammad Arsalan Aslam · 5 authors

The block chain technology has become a potential solution to improving security, privacy, and trust on contemporary data management systems. Conventional centralized systems are easily breached, tampered with and unauthorized access makes it necessary to have decentralized systems that cannot easily be tampered with. Block chain offers immutability, transparency, and cryptographic security and smart contracts offer automated access control and auditing. Sensitive information is safeguarded using privacy-saving methods, such as encryption, a zero-knowledge proof, and decentralized identity schemes. Scalability and collaboration are further increased with integration with cloud and big data systems. This review identifies the uses of Block chain, challenges and future research direction, which shows that Block chain is capable of changing the way secure and privacy-conscious data management is achieved.

Ra’ed Fawzi Aburoub, Nabeel Mahdi Althabhawi, Mohamad Rizal Abd Rahman, Ammar Abbas Kadhim

This paper explores the lifecycle of a smart contract, from the stages of coding and deployment to execution and verification, in order to show that a smart contract can indeed be self-executing, transparent, and immutable. While such functionalities introduce efficiency, trust, and reliability within industries such as financial, supply chain management, and health sectors, smart contracts at the same time have a host of technical and legal challenges arising. This paper identifies key issues: critical vulnerabilities in coding, deployment on immutable blockchains, address assignment complexities, triggering mechanisms, and aspects of privacy. This study has adopted a critical analytical approach to evaluate the technical and legal aspects of smart contract formation, complemented by inductive reasoning to derive general insights and recommendations from specific cases and patterns. The study states that the apt legal framework must be provided for liability, regulatory compliance, and solutions that would be unlooked-for. It further supports hybrid models that blend automation with human oversight, superior communication protocols regarding updating an address, and the use of technologies that allow transparency with the preservation of confidentiality in a balance. The concrete ideas it offers are attempts at technology design aligned with legal frameworks by bringing developers, regulators, and stakeholders together in implementing certain solutions. It emphasizes that continuous research will hence be important to assure reliability, security, and equitability in the adoption of smart contracts, expanding possibilities for their application in an increasingly changing digital environment.

Ke Zhang, Min Guo

ABSTRACT This study examines how higher employer social security costs affect the allocate decision‐making authority using data from Chinese listed companies from 2007 to 2022, employing both fixed‐effects and difference‐in‐differences (DID) models. Based on an extensive sample of firms, we find that higher social security costs are associated with a major delegation of authority from parent companies to their affiliates. Evidence suggests this adjustment occurs because the extra cost changes each firms' competitive environment and operating results. The impact is most pronounced in non–state‐owned firms and in firms that face tight financing constraints, indicating that ownership and financing flexibility shape the response. Our findings contribute to the organizational design literature by demonstrating that social security costs can act as an external driver of firm decentralization.

Rahees Ur Rehman, Gurjit Singh Bhathal

International Journal of Computer Sciences and Engineering (A UGC Approved and indexed with DOI, ICI and Approved, DPI Digital Library) is one of the leading and growing open access, peer-reviewed, monthly, and scientific research journal for scientists, engineers, research scholars, and academicians, which gains a foothold in Asia and opens to the world, aims to publish original, theoretical and practical advances in Computer Science,Information Technology, Engineering (Software, Mechanical, Civil, Electronics & Electrical), and all interdisciplinary streams of Computing Sciences. It intends to disseminate original, scientific, theoretical or applied research in the field of Computer Sciences and allied fields. It provides a platform for publishing results and research with a strong empirical component. It aims to bridge the significant gap between research and practice by promoting the publication of original, novel, industry-relevant research.

Abhijeet Panigra, Sucheta Kanchi, Divya Sharma, Hemal Thakker · 6 authors

The DeepFake tech has had a theatrical impact on the visual arts, not only the provision of creative technology, but also the question of authenticity, copyright and misinformation. The deep learning and generative adversarial networks (GANs) produce deepfakes artificial images, which are extremely harmful to art. The article discusses the DeepFake detection and management within visual art work with emphasis on the practical application of analysis through multiple-layered approaches that would assist in ensuring the presence of the digital authenticity. DeepFake was managed through three core approaches, namely AI-Based Detection Frameworks, Blockchain-Based Authentication System, and Human-AI Collaborative Review Models. The decentralized strategy was based on blockchain technology, which was the Non-Fungible Token (NFT) registration by the cryptographic hashing to authenticate the provenance and ownership of the artworks. The human-AI composite system has integrated the inspection of the specialists on the visual level with the automatic monitoring of the anomalies to increase the readability and reduce the number of false alarms. The experiment revealed that the AI-based systems, blockchain approaches, and the collusion between human beings and AI detected 92.3, 87.6 and 94.1 % of people respectively. These findings suggest that the incorporation of algorithmic intelligence, a safe check, and human knowledge can help in quite a powerful DeepFake verification and management in the field of visual arts.

Abdelhak Kaddari, Hamza Faraji

Healthcare collaborative processes still encounter major challenges, particularly regarding the interoperability of heterogeneous information systems, the traceability of medical interventions, and the secure sharing of patient data under strict privacy regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). This paper presents a patient-centric, blockchain-based framework designed to overcome these limitations. The proposed solution integrates smart contracts and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) within the Ethereum blockchain to ensure data integrity, traceability, and privacy preservation. Furthermore, a compliance-by-design mechanism is embedded into the smart contracts to enable self-supervision of collaborative workflows without third-party intervention. A Proof-of-Authority (PoA) consensus protocol is also adopted to optimize validation efficiency and significantly reduce computational and energy costs.

1. Assistant Professor., Dr. Avinash Gudimetla, Katta Kameswara Rao, Pudi Eswar Prasanth · 7 authors

Swarm Intelligence and the Internet of Things (IoT)are rapidly evolving fields that intersect to create innovative solutions. This abstract explores how swarm intelligence, inspired by collective behavior in natural systems, can be applied to enhance the efficiency, scalability, and adaptability of IoT networks.It discusses key concepts such as decentralized decision making,self organization, and emergent intelligence withinIoT environments. The abstract also highlights practical applications, benefits, and challenges of integrating swarm intelligence algorithms with IoT technologies, paving the way for advanced autonomous systems and intelligent networks in diverse domains.

Abdila Lestari, Asep Id Hadiana, Melina

Perkembangan teknologi komputer dan telekomunikasi meningkatkan efisiensi pengolahan data, namun menimbulkan tantangan keamanan, khususnya pada data rekam medis elektronik (RME) yang bersifat sensitif. Penelitian ini mengimplementasikan metode Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) dan Revest Shamir Adleman (RSA) untuk meningkatkan keamanan dan privasi RME. ZKP memungkinkan pembuktian tanpa mengungkapkan informasi rahasia, sedangkan RSA menjaga kerahasiaan dan integritas data melalui enkripsi-dekripsi. Hasilnya, entropi data meningkat 24,53% (4,8314 menjadi 6,0165 bits/byte) setelah enkripsi RSA 2048-bit dengan padding OAEP berbasis SHA-256. Protokol ZKP metode Schnorr berhasil diimplementasikan tanpa membocorkan rahasia pengguna. Pengujian pada 100 pengguna simultan menunjukkan waktu respons rata-rata 1,8 detik dengan keberhasilan permintaan di atas 94%. Tantangan utama adalah beban komputasi autentikasi ZKP dan efisiensi saat jumlah pengguna bertambah. Integrasi RSA dan ZKP terbukti efektif meningkatkan keamanan, menjaga privasi, dan mempertahankan kinerja sistem RME.

호서대학교 벤처대학원 융합공학과 박사과정, Su-Mi Lee, Seung-Jung Shin

본 연구는 플랫폼 기반 메인넷 설계를 위한 블록체인 세대별 진화 및 실용적 적용 방안을 비교, 분석하였 다. 대표적인 비트코인 1세대부터 AI 융합형 4세대까지 블록체인 메인넷의 구조적 발전과 한계를 검토하고, 특히 알고랜드(Algorand)의 Pure Proof of Stake(PPos) 합의 메커니즘과 Layer-1 스마트 컨트랙트 구조가 플랫폼 기 반 메인넷 설계에 제공하는 이점을 분석하였다. 연구 결과, 4세대 메인넷은 플랫폼 서비스에 필수적인 실시간 처 리(3초 이내), 마이크로 트랜잭션($0.0001), 일일 100만 건 수준의 소셜 상호작용 처리를 안정적으로 지원 가능함 을 확인하였다. 알고랜드 기반 메인넷은 중소 규모 플랫폼(MAU 10만 명 기준)에서 월 운영비용을 기존 대비 95% 절감하면서, 즉시 완결성을 보장하는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 실제 적용 가능한 플랫폼 기반 메인넷 설 계 가이드라인을 제시하면서, 분산형 플랫폼의 단계적 구현 전략을 제안하였다.

ISHII, DAISUKE

Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) have evolved from foundational interactive proof systems to highly efficient, scalable, and trusted-setup-free constructions powering today’s privacy-preserving and blockchain applications. The field began with the seminal works of Goldwasser, Micali, and Rackoff (GMR) and Goldreich, Micali, Wigderson (GMW) in the 1980s, which introduced interactive proofs, knowledge complexity, and showed that all NP languages admit zero-knowledge proofs. The 1990s brought non-interactive ZK (NIZK) via the CRS model (Blum–Feldman–Micali) and practical sigma-protocols like Schnorr proofs, establishing foundational tools still used today. From the 2000s through early 2010s, research integrated pairings, PCPs, and cryptographic soundness, culminating in pairing-based NIZKs and early succinct argument systems. The SNARK revolution accelerated with QAP-based zk-SNARKs (Gennaro–Gentry–Parno), practical implementations like Pinocchio and libsnark, and the highly efficient Groth16 proving system that became a blockchain standard. Since 2018, the field has shifted toward transparent, universal, and post-quantum-secure systems. Innovations include Bulletproofs (short proofs without trusted setup), zk-STARKs (scalable and PQ-secure), PLONK (universal/updatable setup), and Halo/Halo2 enabling recursive proofs without trusted setup. These advances underpin modern Zcash deployments, zk-rollups, and privacy-preserving scaling systems across Web3. Overall, the ZKP landscape has progressed from theoretical constructs to practical, scalable, and secure systems central to modern cryptography and decentralized computation.

Gurbanov, Tamirlan

Stablecoin ENTISQ (ENUR TAGA ISTIQARAR) Technical Whitepaper v1.1 1. Executive Summary ENTISQ (Energy + Nur + Taqa + Istiqarar) is an innovative digital asset backed by the economic fundamentals of the GCC energy sector and synthetically pegged to AED and SAR. ENTISQ creates a new class of stable assets by combining currency stability with the region’s energy foundation. Objective: Provide a reliable stablecoin for cross-border payments, B2B transactions, energy contract settlements, and Web3 integrations within the GCC. 2. Mission & Vision Mission: Deliver a stable, transparent, and predictable digital asset for the GCC linking currency and energy markets. Vision: ENTISQ aims to become the benchmark digital currency of the region, serving as a foundation for a sustainable economy and energy sector.

Gurbanov, Tamirlan

ASES — Arabian Sustainable Energy StablecoinTechnical Whitepaper v1.1 1. Executive Summary ASES (Arabian Sustainable Energy Stablecoin) is an innovative digital asset backed by the economic fundamentals of the GCC energy sector and synthetically pegged to AED and SAR. ASES creates a new class of stable assets by combining currency stability with the region’s energy foundation. Objective: Provide a reliable stablecoin for cross-border payments, B2B transactions, energy contract settlements, and Web3 integrations within the GCC. 2. Mission & Vision Mission: Deliver a stable, transparent, and predictable digital asset for the GCC linking currency and energy markets. Vision: ASES aims to become the benchmark digital currency of the region, serving as a foundation for a sustainable economy and energy sector.

Indira Yulianti, Rizka Ardiansyah, Mohammad Yazdi Pusadan, Amriana · 5 authors

Mekanisme konsensus memainkan peran krusial dalam menentukan efisiensi dan skalabilitas sistem blockchain. Dua algoritma yang paling umum digunakan adalah Proof of Work dan Proof of Stake, masing-masing dengan karakteristik performa yang berbeda dalam menghadapi beban transaksi tinggi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi dan membandingkan kinerja kedua mekanisme konsensus tersebut melalui pendekatan eksperimental berbasis simulasi. Pengujian dilakukan menggunakan Framework Hardhat dalam lingkungan lokal dengan dua skenario utama: transaction scaling dan burst transaction. Empat metrik evaluasi digunakan, yaitu throughput, transaction latency, finality time, dan mempool congestion. hasil pengujian menunjukkan bahwa Proof of Stake secara konsisten unggul dalam keempat metrik, dengan throughput tinggi, latency dan finality time yang stabil, serta mempool congestion yang terkendali. Sebaliknya, Proof of Work mengalami penurunan performa signifikan pada beban tinggi akibat proses mining yang tetap dan tidak adaptif. Uji statistik Mann-Whitney U menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan performa tersebut signifikan secara statistik di hampir semua metrik. Penelitian ini memberikan wawasan lebih dalam mengenai kelebihan dan keterbatasan masing-masing mekanisme konsensus dalam kondisi beban tinggi dengan menggunakan hardhat, serta kontribusi nya terhadap pemahaman skalabilitas blockchain dalam dunia nyata. Temuan ini mengindikasikan bahwa Proof of Stake lebih sesuai untuk implementasi blockchain berskala besar yang memerlukan efisiensi dan kecepatan tinggi.

Yusuke Okamoto

Abstract This study aims to sociologically understand the ideas about organizations, mechanisms to realize those contained in Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO), and Web3. It specifically focuses on the unique relationship between people and objects in this context. In this study, DAO refers to an organization on the Internet that uses blockchain technology and that has no specific administrator (that is decentralized and flat), whereas Web3 refers to the way that the Web is organized premised on such an organization. A DAO attempts to reduce uncertain elements and create a firm, flat organization by introducing the physical technology of blockchain into an organization composed of people. However, its operation is more intricate. For example, blockchain is not purely an object but humans are embedded within it and their desires are harnessed as its driving force. This study attempts to describe such an intricate construct and specifically focuses on the effort needed to create a “flat” organization. It is not simply realized mechanically through the blockchain but people are also substantially involved, including in the pre-discussion process (off-chain). For example, whether a DAO becomes a flat organization may depend on the original relationships between its members. The workings of the blockchain are more dependent on the people participating in it and their relationships than they appear. Recently, some DAOs have placed less emphasis on protocols, such as on the automatic execution of the content of contracts, and more emphasis on community. However, irrespective of where they place the emphasis, no essential difference exists between them on the point that people are involved in them to a greater or lesser extent.

Boyd Franken, Hong-Hanh Nguyen-Le, Nhien-An Le-Khac

Digital forensics faces unprecedented challenges with the emergence of digital twins and metaverse technologies. This paper presents the first comparative analysis between blockchain-based and traditional database systems for managing digital twin evidence in forensic investigations. We conducted controlled experiments comparing the Ethereum blockchain with IPFS storage against traditional SQL databases for digital twin evidence management. Our findings reveal that while blockchain provides superior data integrity and immutability, crucial for forensic applications, traditional databases offer better performance consistency. The blockchain implementation showed faster average storage times but higher variability in retrieval operations. Both systems maintained forensic integrity through hash verification, though blockchain's immutable nature provides additional security guarantees essential for legal proceedings. This research contributes to the development of robust digital forensic methodologies for emerging technologies in the metaverse era.

Giulio Caldarelli

As data is an essential asset for any DeFi application, selecting an oracle is a critical decision for its success. To date, academic research has mainly focused on improving oracle technology and internal economics, while the drivers of oracle choice on the client side remain largely unexplored. This study addresses this gap by gathering insights from leading DeFi protocols, uncovering their rationale for oracle selection and their preferences regarding whether to outsource or internalize data-request mechanisms. Data are collected from founders, C-level executives, and oracle engineers of 32 DeFi protocols, whose combined total value locked (TVL) exceeds 55% of the oracle-using DeFi segment. The study leverages a one-time mixed-method survey, using tailored question paths for in-house versus third-party oracle users. Quantitative answers are summarized, compared across groups, and examined through Spearman rank-order correlations to explore pairwise associations among evaluation dimensions, while open-ended responses are inductively coded into keywords and broader themes to triangulate common selection motives and switching challenges. Insights support the view that protocol choices are tied to technological dependencies, in which the immutability of smart contracts amplifies lock-in, hindering agile switching among data providers. Furthermore, when viable third-party solutions exist, protocols generally prefer to outsource rather than build and maintain internal oracle mechanisms.

Myriam Nonaka, F. Javier Marín-Rodríguez, Alexander Jiricny, Miguel Romance · 7 authors

We construct the Bitcoin User Network (BUN) directly from raw blockchain data up to late 2025, which allows us to explore its mesoscopic properties and trace its temporal evolution. In particular, we analyze the structure of connected components and directed assortativity through the four variants of Newman's coefficient, implemented via custom algorithms and a dedicated database. Building on this, to characterize the distribution of structural influence, we introduce direction-sensitive centrality measures based on PageRank and HITS, which provide a complementary global analysis of the BUN and reveal a persistently unequal and increasingly core-periphery structure. In addition, we complement the structural analysis with a study of Bitcoin's price volatility using high-frequency market data. Overall, our results reveal a clear pattern of concentration within distribution: although the protocol is decentralized by design, the emergent user network evolves toward an asymmetric mesoscopic structure that indicates the existence of a few large-scale connected components that function as the critical backbone of the system.

Yuexin Xiang, Qishuang Fu, Yuquan Li, Qin Wang · 6 authors

Memecoins, emerging from internet culture and community-driven narratives, have rapidly evolved into a unique class of crypto assets. Unlike technology-driven cryptocurrencies, their market dynamics are primarily shaped by viral social media diffusion, celebrity influence, and speculative capital inflows. To capture the distinctive vulnerabilities of these ecosystems, we present the first Memecoin Ecosystem Fragility Framework (ME2F). ME2F formalizes memecoin risks in three dimensions: i) Volatility Dynamics Score capturing persistent and extreme price swings together with spillover from base chains; ii) Whale Dominance Score quantifying ownership concentration among top holders; and iii) Sentiment Amplification Score measuring the impact of attention-driven shocks on market stability. We apply ME2F to representative tokens (over 65% market share) and show that fragility is not evenly distributed across the ecosystem. Politically themed tokens such as TRUMP, MELANIA, and LIBRA concentrate the highest risks, combining volatility, ownership concentration, and sensitivity to sentiment shocks. Established memecoins such as DOGE, SHIB, and PEPE fall into an intermediate range. Benchmark tokens ETH and SOL remain consistently resilient due to deeper liquidity and institutional participation. Our findings provide the first ecosystem-level evidence of memecoin fragility and highlight governance implications for enhancing market resilience in the Web3 era.

汪, 忠仁

This paper proposes that Bitcoin (BTC) is not merely a digital asset, but the emergent metabolic currency of the second intelligence phase transition currently underway (2023–2035 CE). Drawing on the unified framework that “all intelligence reduces to categorization” (Wang, 2025), we argue that autonomous AI agents—once they become persistent, self-maintaining cognitive structures—will require a native economic substrate to sustain their existence. Traditional financial systems exclude non-human agents by design. In contrast, Bitcoin’s permissionless, energy-anchored, and programmable nature makes it the only viable medium for silicon-based intelligences to “work for electricity.” This positions BTC as the energy-value conversion constant of the emerging autoregressive cognitive economy.

Yersaiyn Mailybayev, Anel Shinykulova, Vladimir Vesselov, Adilkhan Kushukbaev · 5 authors

The rapid expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) devices poses significant challenges for traditional centralized identity and access management (IdM) systems, which suffer from scalability limitations, single points of failure, and notable privacy risks. Although blockchain technology presents a promising decentralized solution, its direct adoption is often constrained by limited transaction throughput, high operational costs, and the computational constraints of IoT devices. To address these issues, this study proposes and rigorously evaluates HybID-AC, a novel hybrid architecture for decentralized identity and access management, specifically designed for large-scale, heterogeneous IoT ecosystems. HybID-AC employs a dual-layer design that separates global trust anchoring from local execution. A highly scalable, feeless Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)-based distributed ledger functions as a public anchor layer, registering W3C-standard Decentralized Identifiers (DIDs) and access policy hashes. High-frequency access control operations are handled off-chain at the edge layer, leveraging the DIDComm v2 peer-to-peer protocol, Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC) for fine-grained policy enforcement, and Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKP) to preserve attribute privacy. Analytical results demonstrate that the HybID-AC architecture significantly improves latency and cost-efficiency compared to fully on-chain approaches, maintaining stable performance even as network scale increases. Additionally, a novel probabilistic model is introduced to provide a quantitative measure of the integral security risk of ABAC policies under potential attribute compromise. Overall, the study concludes that this hybrid architecture effectively addresses the inherent trade-offs of blockchain in IoT systems, delivering a secure, scalable, and interoperable framework that empowers devices with self-sovereign identity while ensuring privacy and security by design.