Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) have been developed over the past few years as an impactful new digital asset class that allows both artists and cultural institutions to securely generate revenue from their digital creations while protecting them. However, limited research exists that fully addresses the integration of NFTs and smart contracts as a technological framework for preserving and promoting artistic and cultural heritage in Malaysia. While there has been much discussion about the economic advantages of NFTs paired with smart contracts, the technical backbone infrastructure remains largely unexplored in many ways for cultural preservation. The research explores NFTs and smart contracts to offer automated royalties and an unprecedented transfer of ownership system with cultural impact. This research, through a mixed-method approach-including a literature review, interviews with experts, and the formulation of relevant mathematical models-conducted an analysis of how smart contracts automate the NFT transaction and royalty distribution. The results have so far shown that, underpinned by blockchain technology, NFTs can offer a promising solution to present and future Malaysian artists and cultural institutions in ensuring the authenticity and financial viability of traditional and modern forms of art. Besides that, scalability, environmental concerns, and legal frameworks are several sober challenges to widespread adoption. Finally, this research concludes that NFTs and smart contracts have the potential to revolutionize Malaysia's cultural economy by offering a sustainable model for heritage preservation and a supporter of the arts in general.
Tangible cultural heritage has recently been an important target for companies’ mining, minting or forging non-fungible tokens (NFTs). When encountering cultural goods collected in museums, the practice of NFTs needs to comply with national rules aimed at preserving and valorizing cultural heritage. NFTs are assets that could play different roles in museums. They might be considered as a tool for enhancing preservation or access to information on cultural goods, in particular when the latter cannot be displayed in the premises of museums. While no provision on preservation or access would be affected by the use of NFTs for such purposes, this chapter argues that these assets are way too expensive to be considered as an appropriate means for the said goals. On the contrary, NFTs remain one of the most recent tricks that bodies managing tangible cultural heritage, including artworks museums, use to collect funds. Thus, NFTs may be considered as a fund-raising tool, under the condition that the unique goal of the museum is to re-invest the collected money into initiatives fitting with its educational mission. In order to have a complete description of the scenario, it is worth referring to some national cultural heritage rules that favour fund-raising practices in museums; in some countries, these provisions may affect the ability of minting NFTs, even when they concern ancient artworks in the public domain.
Digitization marks the initial phase of digital transformation, encompassing a spectrum of socio-technical developments that unfold thereafter. These processes are pivotal components within a broader domain that: 1) encompasses physical inspection methodologies, business models geared towards enhancing inspection efficiency, integrity engineering, and decision-making; and 2) furnishes invaluable data to enrich the design, production, and maintenance over the lifespan of cultural heritage artifacts. Vrana and Sing (2020) advocate for designating this domain as Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) 4.0, underscoring its characterization as "a suite of cyber-physical technologies." These technologies encompass Digital Twin (DT), Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), Semantic Interoperability and Ontologies, Industry 4.0 Data Processing (Big Data Analysis), Blockchains, Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), and Artificial Intelligence. The concept of Digital Twin, introduced in 2003 at the University of Michigan during the Executive Course on Product Lifecycle Management (PLM), as articulated by Grieves (2014), holds particular significance. Glaessgen and Stargel (2012) subsequently advocated for Digital Twins to support the production of NASA and U.S. Air Force vehicles, envisioning them as enabling "integrated multiphysics, multiscale, probabilistic simulation of an as-built vehicle or system that utilizes the best available physical models, sensor updates, fleet history, etc." Within this framework, a methodology will be elucidated for devising and implementing innovative tools and techniques for digitizing and digitalizing attributes of cultural heritage items.
The purpose of this study is to examine the viewpoint of national archives on blockchain and distributed ledger technologies, discover their activities in relation to the application of these technologies, and analyse their thoughts on how these technologies can play a role in the preservation of records’ trustworthiness. A survey method was adopted in the study. The survey consisted of 18 questions about national archives’ attitude and actions in relation to application of blockchain and distributed ledger technologies. The survey was sent to the 194 national archives listed in the Directory of National Archives. Eighteen responses have been acquired which, while low, provides initial insights into how national archives are responding to these technologies. This study has three hypotheses. The first one is “blockchain technology will change archiving practices “, the second one is “the trustworthiness of digital records can be preserved better with blockchain technology”, and the last one is “national archives are reluctant to implement blockchain networks that use tradable crypto-assets”. According to the results obtained from the survey, the first hypothesis has not been verified. The second hypothesis is likely, as national archives that are keen to adopt blockchain and distributed ledger technologies, but a majority of the archives are hesitant to adopt these technologies for archiving, suggesting that the third and final hypothesis might also true, though the reasons for national archives’ reluctance to adopt these technologies could be more varied than originally hypothesized. This study is one of the first systemic analyses of the viewpoint and activities of national archives on blockchain and distributed technologies.
2021 witnessed US retaining its leading position in the global art market and increasing its sales to over $28.0 billion. Behind such significant growth lies a comprehensive legal framework across most sectors in the art industry, including acquiring, selling, collecting, exhibiting, lending, repatriating, exporting and importing. The US law imposes regulations on art sales to increase the transparency of the art transactions and provide adequate remedies for aggrieved art sellers and buyers. The federal government has also established various acts to protect the domestic cultural patrimony and works with different countries to protect against illicit importation of cultural property. This chapter intends to provide a high-level understanding of the vibrant and engaging issues in the art industry, including the topic of non-fungible tokens, which blurs the line between physical art world and the virtual one, but does not bewilder the regulators.
The growing outrage over the continued stewardship of artefacts acquired through nefarious means has compelled cultural institutions to explore their role in marginalising cultures through misrepresentation. Indigenous communities around the globe are seeking the repatriation of sacred objects often collected through colonial violence. Though many museums have collaborated with communities to repatriate these artefacts, many have also avoided or refused repatriation requests, leaving communities without recourse. This paper will explore repatriation in the digital world through the lens of Cercle d'Art des Travailleurs de Plantation Congolaise's (CATPC) the quest for the return of an important Balot Pende sculpture from the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, and whether creating a digital iteration, like an Non-Fungible Token (NFT) of a sacred object, offers a potential activist tool to reclaim an alternate form of ownership when physical repatriation is not available.
Museums as traditional institutions are usually not leaders in the use of the latest and disruptive technologies. However, the Covid-19 pandemic has influenced the growing interest of researchers and museum experts in new solutions for communication and museum operations. That is how blockchain technology and non-fungible tokens (NFT) entered the focus of museums. Although it is most often associated with cryptocurrencies, this technology, due to its main property, the immutability of records on the chain, has great potential for use in various aspects of museum work.This paper will show how blockchain and NFTs can be used in museums, from checking the provenance, ownership, and authorship of museum objects, facilitating their borrowing, more efficient digital rights management to building smart museums. It will also focus on how museums have so far experimented with NFTs and blockchain technology and highlight the potential problems of their use. Huge challenges to understanding and adopting this technology is the lack of knowledge base and this paper aims to bring the topic of blockchain technology within the museum field to the table and start a conversation on this fast-growing new technology and possibilities of its implementation.
Archaeological Research and Protection
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Marie-Sophie de Clippele, Antoine Vandenbulke, Collège Belgique
Désormais bien connue, la technologie « blockchain » a permis le développement des cryptomonnaies dès 2008. Cette technique de certification qui permet de se passer du contrôle d’un organe central a ensuite été élargie à plusieurs usages. Parmi ceux-ci, la blockchain a notamment été utilisée pour certifier la propriété d’images numériques – on parle, dans le jargon (qui tend désormais à s’étendre dans le langage courant) de « NFT » (acronyme de « Non-Fungible Tokens »). Les NFT, qui sont des jetons cryptographiques non fongibles – c’est-à-dire qu’ils ne sont pas interchangeables, contrairement aux cryptomonnaies –, permettent d’identifier le « propriétaire » d’une image numérique. L’intérêt des NFT est de créer de la rareté là où elle n’existait pas : les images numériques, contrairement aux œuvres physiques, sont en effet duplicables à l’infini. Le NFT vient alors certifier qui est le titulaire de l’image (qui doit être distingué de son auteur) et crée, par ce même acte, une valeur économique au bien immatériel en question. La conférence s’intéresse, dans un premier temps, à l’apparition des NFT dans le domaine de l’art, ainsi qu’à leurs effets sur le marché de l’art, en ce compris sur les collections muséales. Dans un second temps, les NFT sont analysés sous l’angle juridique, soulevant notamment la question de leur définition et champ d’application, ainsi que celle des droits d’auteur : comment articuler titularité d’un NFT aux droits de l’auteur d’une œuvre (numérique)?
En 2021, le sujet des <i>Non Fungible Tokens</i> (NFTs) et de la <i>blockchain</i> a connu une grande impulsion. À titre d’exemple, le célèbre cas de la vente aux enchères organisée par Christie’s d’une œuvre d’art numérique réalisée par l’artiste Beeple peut être cité. Par ailleurs, ce travail s’appuie fortement sur ce cas et plus précisément sur les conditions générales de Christie’s. L’objet de cette analyse se concentre non seulement sur les <i>smart contracts</i> et leur validité juridique au regard du droit suisse, mais également sur les aspects liés au transfert des droits relatifs à une œuvre d’art numérique, notamment en ce qui concerne la propriété matérielle et les droits d’auteur. L’analyse se conclut par la possibilité d’adapter le droit de suite, habituellement appliqué aux œuvres d’art physiques, aux œuvres d’art numériques, grâce à l’efficacité que les technologies de la <i>blockchain</i> et des <i>smart contracts</i> offrent. Bien que l’intérêt médiatique pour les NFTs et l’art numérique semble s’atténuer depuis quelques années, les questions juridiques qui en découlent demeurent très intéressantes, ouvrant la voie à de futures évolutions dans ce domaine en plein essor.
Lo scritto si propone di indagare il fenomeno dei non fungible token nel mercato dell’arte. Dopo una definizione dei termini tecnici rilevanti, gli Autori si soffermano sulle multiformi opinioni sorte in merito alla natura giuridica di tali strumenti di circolazione della ricchezza. La disamina consente di superare, in buona parte, lo stringente problema qualificatorio, concentrandosi sull’individuazione della disciplina di volta in volta più adeguata al caso concreto, nella consapevolezza della complessità e poliedricità degli strumenti medesimi.
This chapter offers a comprehensive exploration of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) within the art world, dissecting their implications on authenticity, value, and counterfeit. Drawing upon Walter Benjamin's seminal essay, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," the chapter juxtaposes the realm of NFTs with Benjamin's observations on how mechanical reproduction influences the aura and politicization of art. The analysis is further enriched by a case study—Yuga Labs v. Ryder Ripps—examining the role of NFTs in political discourse and legal contexts. The chapter is organized into five key sections: 1) Revisiting the concept of 'aura' in the age of digital technology; 2) Tokenization and its impact on perceptions of authenticity; 3) Exploring the balance between value and reproducibility in NFTs; 4) Investigating how status and deception evolve in this new art ecosystem; and 5) A critical case study elucidating the intersection of NFTs and politics, thereby offering a nuanced understanding of art's politicization in the digital age. Conclusively, the chapter identifies NFTs as both a continuation and subversion of Benjamin's theories on mechanical reproduction, engaging in a complex interplay of democratization and exclusivity. The social transformation driven by NFTs not only disrupts traditional art paradigms but also introduces new layers of complexity to the intersections of community, commodity, and reality in the digital age. The rise of NFTs underscores a seismic shift in socio-political dynamics, potentially signaling a burgeoning culture war online that both democratizes and complicates the art world.
Abstract Liben Building, constructed in 1822 AD, is located in Xinnan Village, Hukeng Town, Yongding District, Longyan City, Fujian Province, China. This square earthen building covers an area of about 2100 square metres. In 1931 AD, the building was sacked and burned down by bandits during a war, leaving behind only the remnants of the walls of the main building. In the meta‐universe environment, firstly, this study adopted blockchain DAO technology to conduct a study on the digital collection, storage, processing, display and dissemination of Liben Building, revealing the problems with digital regeneration of cultural heritage. Then, the questionnaire with 20 questions was designed, and 158 valid completed copies of the questionnaire were collected. Combining influence relationship with sample clustering analysis methods, this paper explored the findings of a study of the historical sites under blockchain digital heritage preservation and protection in the metaverse.
As the rules for countering money laundering constantly change, criminals find new methods and platforms to launder their “dirty” money. Recently, such new platforms have included the art market and the use of crypto currencies. Subsequently, both of these sectors were added to the list of sectors susceptible to facilitate money laundering. Apart from the traditional art market, criminals may use digital art in order to facilitate their activities. The rise of the digital art market with the expansion of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) is a new area of concern for law enforcement agencies. Anonymity and price volatility of NFTs create a unique and exploitable environment for criminals. The complex nature and uncertain legal status of NFTs further complicate the counter measures one can take. This paper explains what NFTs are, analyses their relation to money laundering risks and scrutinises their legal status in the EU. In doing so, it identifies gaps in the law and training needs of law enforcement agencies. Finally, the paper provides potential solutions and recommendations in relation to these gaps. The paper offers a novel study on NFTs and aims to pave the way for further comparative studies related to NFTs.
The first and second generations of human rights which are established on individuality fall short of offering full protection to cultural heritage. Recognition of the solidarity among entities even beyond the geographical and temporal limit is an essential prerequisite of the right to culture as common heritage of mankind. Furthermore, cultural heritage serves as the basis of human identity which leads to human dignity and cultural heritage itself has its own value to be protected regardless of its use. These factors support Karel Vasak’s argument of the ownership of the common cultural heritage of humanity as one of the third generation human rights. However, the third generation human right to cultural heritage not only conflicts with property rights but also entails contradiction between different group interests. With the power of the blockchain technology which enables openness, transparency, anonymity, decentralization and trust, DAOs (Decentralized Autonomous Organizations) hand out clues to solve the problems of the third generation human right to cultural heritage. The provisions in the Korean civil act regarding an association that is not a juristic person also provide useful legal methods to realize the collective ownership of cultural heritage. If DAOs have the legal status of the association without juristic personality in Korean civil act and the Articles of DAOs clearly stipulate the public nature of the ownership and the solidarity with others including future generations, the third-generation human right to cultural heritage can be enforced effectively. In Korea, the National Treasure DAO tried to be the first DAO with the purpose of public ownership of two Korean national treasures. Though it failed, it gave enough insight to make a future breakthrough. It cannot be emphasized enough that DAOs and its collective ownership alone leave a vast lacuna in guaranteeing the public access and participation in the cultural heritage with a common value. Public law research that carves out the details of solidarity in cultural heritage must fill the blank. It should be incarnated in the Articles of DAOs to keep the common value of cultural heritage intact. Also, the public law research results should guide states, public authorities, museums, and other specialists who will take the initiative of the cultural heritage DAOs in near future.
Mohamed Al Ali, Ahmed Adel Ismail, Hany M. Elgohary, Saad M. Darwish · 5 authors
Digital evidence is critical in cybercrime investigations because it is used to connect individuals to illegal activity. Digital evidence is complicated, diffuse, volatile, and easily altered, and as such, it must be protected. The Chain of Custody (CoC) is a critical component of the digital evidence procedure. The aim of the CoC is to demonstrate that the evidence has not been tampered with at any point throughout the investigation. Because the uncertainty associated with digital evidence is not being assessed at the moment, it is impossible to determine the trustworthiness of CoC. As scientists, forensic examiners have a responsibility to reverse this tendency and officially confront the uncertainty inherent in any evidence upon which they base their judgments. To address these issues, this article proposes a new paradigm for ensuring the integrity of digital evidence (CoC documents). The new paradigm employs fuzzy hash within blockchain data structure to handle uncertainty introduced by error-prone tools when dealing with CoC documents. Traditional hashing techniques are designed to be sensitive to small input modifications and can only determine if the inputs are exactly the same or not. By comparing the similarity of two images, fuzzy hash functions can determine how different they are. With the symmetry idea at its core, the suggested framework effectively deals with random parameter probabilities, as shown in the development of the fuzzy hash segmentation function. We provide a case study for image forensics to illustrate the usefulness of this framework in introducing forensic preparedness to computer systems and enabling a more effective digital investigation procedure.
Open access
Digital Media Forensic Detection
Archaeological Research and Protection
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
This article considers the notion of shared guardianship in the context of digital museum objects and blockchain technology, arguing that this technology can contribute to the production of value in digital museum objects that goes beyond the monetary. Shared guardianship is understood to be a process of prioritizing the experience of others and forming a diverse set of stakeholders that transforms understandings around ownership; meanwhile, a blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology which can be used to identify digital files and so make them feel ownable and authentic. As such, this paper argues that blockchain technology could create a new layer of materiality and value in digital museum objects which could support the formation of shared guardianship. This question will be analysed in relation to the theoretical underpinnings of digital materiality and a case study project at the National Museums Liverpool, UK, which investigated how to implement blockchain technology in the museum context in order to produce collective ownership and meaningful, connected digital objects.
Matthieu Nadini, Laura Alessandretti, Flavio Di Giacinto, Mauro Martino · 6 authors
Non Fungible Tokens (NFTs) are digital assets that represent objects like art, collectible, and in-game items. They are traded online, often with cryptocurrency, and are generally encoded within smart contracts on a blockchain. Public attention towards NFTs has exploded in 2021, when their market has experienced record sales, but little is known about the overall structure and evolution of its market. Here, we analyse data concerning 6.1 million trades of 4.7 million NFTs between June 23, 2017 and April 27, 2021, obtained primarily from Ethereum and WAX blockchains. First, we characterize statistical properties of the market. Second, we build the network of interactions, show that traders typically specialize on NFTs associated with similar objects and form tight clusters with other traders that exchange the same kind of objects. Third, we cluster objects associated to NFTs according to their visual features and show that collections contain visually homogeneous objects. Finally, we investigate the predictability of NFT sales using simple machine learning algorithms and find that sale history and, secondarily, visual features are good predictors for price. We anticipate that these findings will stimulate further research on NFT production, adoption, and trading in different contexts.
Amy Whitaker, Anne Bracegirdle, Susan de Menil, Michelle Ann Gitlitz · 5 authors
Objects of cultural heritage present a unique and important opportunity for the use of blockchain technology. Specifically, blockchain, a distributed ledger technology, can be used to disincentivize the sale of looted objects and to manage shared stewardship, ownership, and exhibition of these contested artifacts taken though war or colonialism. We offer background on repatriation of antiquities using the Byzantine Fresco Foundation as a core case study; introduce a working model of stakeholders in antiquities markets in both contemporary and historical context; and propose a blockchain solution using four different cases. The paper draws on newly sourced archival documents, game-theory interpretations of stakeholder behavior and application of this new technology in regulatory context. These blockchain applications are especially timely with the publication of the Sarr Savoy Report and the Arts Council England’s rewriting of its restitution guidelines for museums and galleries.
Purpose Archival repositories rely on the authenticity of records. The potential manipulation of records and information present a unique challenge to archival repositories and their mission to collect, maintain and provide access to the authentic records. The purpose of this paper is to outline the technical aspects of blockchain and describe potential records management and archival implications of the technology. The implications to consider include data management, records existing on a blockchain and records disposition. Design/methodology/approach The approach included reviews of technical literature and attendance at blockchain conferences, workshops and seminars. The literature review focused on general studies, technical publications, use cases and nascent applications for managing records created and stored on a blockchain. The approach is intended to answer the questions: what basic information do records managers need to understand blockchain? How will blockchain technology impact records management? Does blockchain shift toward decentralized records management? Findings Implemented properly, blockchain technology can immutably record transactions and provide independent verification and authentication of digital records. Given the ease with which electronic records can sometimes be manipulated, the promise of certainty and third-party verification has drawn sizeable interest and investment. This paper shows records exist on blockchains and must be managed appropriately. The distributed structure inherent in blockchains is a shift from centralized records management and will challenge the approach and assumptions of the profession. Records managers must determine recordkeeping requirements before developing a business application using blockchain and the fixed nature of blockchains means that these considerations must be included at the outset. Originality/value This proposed paper began as a blockchain white paper produced by the US National Archives for the federal records management community. It has been re-focused as a general review paper for the Records Management Journal to explain blockchain and show how it may be used to address broader records and information management concerns such as authenticity, veracity, and trustworthiness.
Béla Gipp, Norman Meuschke, Joeran Beel, Corinna Breitinger
The proportion of information that is exclusively available online is continuously increasing. Unlike physical print media, online news outlets, magazines, or blogs are not immune to retrospective modification. Even significant editing of text in online news sources can easily go unnoticed. This poses a challenge to the preservation of digital cultural heritage. It is nearly impossible for regular readers to verify whether the textual content they encounter online has at one point been modified from its initial state, and at what time or to what extent the text was modified to its current version. In this paper, we propose a web-based platform that allows users to submit the URL for any web content they wish to track for changes. The system automatically creates a trusted timestamp stored in the blockchain of the cryptocurrency Bitcoin for the hash of the HTML content available at the user-specified URL. By using trusted timestamping to secure a ‘snapshot’ of online information as it existed at a specific time, any subsequent changes made to the content can be identified.
Open access
Archaeological Research and Protection
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques