This work presents an innovative algorithm demonstrating the effectiveness of zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) in network security. By integrating Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) for key generation, the algorithm showcases their applicability in enhancing security measures within 6G networks. It highlights the utility of ZKPs in bolstering data privacy and security by enabling entities to validate knowledge without compromising sensitive information. The algorithm shows its capability to ensure robust communication security through comprehensive simulations, thereby laying the groundwork for dependable next-generation communication infrastructures.
The 6G communication network emerged with the developments in new generation Information and Communication Technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality/Augmented Reality/Extended Reality, Internet of Things, blockchain technology, etc. The development of 6G has a profound impact on the intelligence process of communication development that consists of intelligent connectivity, deep connectivity, holographic connectivity, and ubiquitous connectivity. Security solutions in terms of distributed ledger technology (DLT), physical layer security, quantum communication, and distributed AI/ML are provided. The Distributed Ledger Technology threats include Majority attack/51% attack, other attacks, etc. The possible solutions include proper access control and authentication mechanisms, selecting the proper blockchain/DLT type according to the 6G application and services, etc. The Physical Layer Security requires line of sight transmission which can be overcome by multipath transmission in Terahertz Technology, broadcast nature of visible light communications which can be overcome by enhancing secrecy performance by using multiple input multiple output technology, Quantum cloning attacks and quantum collision attacks. The poisoning attacks, evasion attacks, and API-based attacks can affect distributed and scalable AI/ML that can be overcome by adversarial training injects, defensive distillation, etc. Finally, the road map for materializing 6G security visions into a reality is provided.
One of the greatest ways to guarantee that networks designed for fifth generation (5G) and beyond reach the required levels of spectrum efficiency (SE) is through nonorthogonal multiple access (NOMA). This work presents two new blockchain-based techniques that take advantage of massive multiple input multiple output in a single-cell network to improve performance. NOMA power domain is used in the 5G cooperative cognitive radio network (CCRN) to improve the SE of the downlink. This study investigates a novel cooperative NOMA-based CCRN for underlay spectrum sharing. A cooperative NOMA technique is proposed by considering the access modes of relays and secondary users (SUs) on the secondary network. The proposed system's performance is assessed with respect to random channel characteristics, frequency-selective Rayleigh fading and perfect successive interference cancellation (SIC). The first signal decoded by SU identifies the relay states with the best channel quality between users and the destination users to offset the bit error rate. The throughput dropped during the period because of the perfect SIC. The precise closed-form expressions for the system throughput of the secondary network are derived under the interference constraint of the primary network to evaluate the efficacy of the suggested cooperative strategy. The suggested approaches are assessed under various conditions using the MATLAB application by considering varying transmit power levels, power location coefficients and lengths. In every case, four users are assumed to be using a 90 MHz bandwidth and M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation technology. • Each user (PU and SU) is transformed into blockchain-like blocks that collaborate to create a decentralised network. • The cooperative users' authentication verifies the energy detection technique for spectrum sensing and its results. • Blockchain technology is used to leverage the security of the massive-MIMO network and improve user performance by using digital signatures to confirm PU and MU's identities and preventing MU from using PUs bandwidth. • The identification of an in individual sensing for broadcast channel, cooperative channel for M-MIMO DL PD NOMA with relay CCRN is use to validate the energy detection, throughput, spectrum efficiency, and BER.
The advent of 6G networks promises revolutionary advances in dynamism, intelligence, and decentralization. Realizing the full potential of 6G requires adaptable service level agreements (SLAs) that can optimize performance based on dynamic network conditions. In this paper, we suggested a method based on the Hyperledger Sawtooth blockchain’s smart contract with the Reptile meta-learning algorithm to solve the rigidity of static SLA and centralization problems. In order to sustain the quality of service in the radio access network and core network domain of 6G networks, this work focuses on SLA management for efficient resource allocation for the eMBB-plus slice. Our approach entails breaking down static SLAs into finer-grained components, transferring those components onto Hyperledger Sawtooth smart contracts, and using the Reptile meta-learning algorithm to forecast SLA metrics and resource requirements. A dynamic tariff model, also proposed within the smart contract, handles increased user demands. We evaluate the solution by analyzing Reptile performance, resource allocation, and SLA violations under dynamic demands. Results demonstrate the efficiency of this AI-driven, blockchain-based approach for automated, optimized 6G eMBB-plus resource management adhering to dynamic fine-grained SLAs. This work highlights the synergistic potential of AI and blockchain for trusted and intelligent 6G service delivery.
Symbiotic communication (SC) is known as a new wireless communication paradigm, similar to the natural ecosystem population, and can enable multiple communication systems to cooperate and mutualize through service exchange and resource sharing. As a result, SC is seen as an important potential technology for future sixth-generation (6G) communications, solving the problem of lack of spectrum resources and energy inefficiency. Symbiotic relationships among communication systems can complement radio resources in 6G. However, the absence of established trust relationships among diverse communication systems presents a formidable hurdle in ensuring efficient and trusted resource and service exchange within SC frameworks. To better realize trusted SC services in 6G, in this paper, we propose a solution that converges SC and blockchain, called a symbiotic blockchain network (SBN). Specifically, we first use cognitive backscatter communication to transform blockchain consensus, that is, the symbiotic blockchain consensus (SBC), so that it can be better suited for the wireless network. Then, for SBC, we propose a highly energy-efficient sharding scheme to meet the extremely low power consumption requirements in 6G. Finally, such a blockchain scheme guarantees trusted transactions of communication services in SC. Through ablation experiments, our proposed SBN demonstrates significant efficacy in mitigating energy consumption and reducing processing latency in adversarial networks, which is expected to achieve a sustainable and trusted 6G wireless network.
Zakaria Abou El Houda, Hajar Moudoud, Lyes Khoukhi
O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network) is an initiative that promotes the development of open and interoperable radio access technologies. The O-RAN Alliance has undertaken specification efforts that align with O-RAN principles, incorporating the near-real-time RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) to manage extensible applications (xApps) owned by various ORAN operators and vendors. However, this integration of untrusted third-party applications raises significant security concerns, expanding the threat surface of 6G networks. Moreover, the heterogeneity in deployment, with apps residing on various sites, poses challenges for traditional security models based on perimeter security. To overcome this issue, a Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) becomes paramount to ensure network security. In this context, we introduce TrustORAN, a novel blockchain-based decentralized Zero-Trust Framework designed to ensure security and trustworthiness in O-RAN. TrustORAN allows for the verification and authentication of xApps by O-RAN players, to prevent unauthorized access from malicious xApps. Moreover, we introduce a dynamic decentralized-based access control framework that allows vendors to manage permissions in a fully decentralized, flexible, scalable, and secure manner. TrustORAN architecture is implemented, tested, and deployed on both private and public blockchains. The obtained results demonstrate that TrustORAN empowers 6G O-RAN networks with heightened security, resilience, and robustness, providing effective protection against evolving security threats while ensuring Trust.
Yang Liu, Song Peng, Miaomiao Zhang, Shidong Shi · 5 authors
The future of communication systems is undergoing a transformative shift towards intelligence, efficiency, and flexibility. Presently, the amalgamation of blockchain technology and the sixth-generation mobile communication network (6G) has garnered significant attention, as their fusion is poised to profoundly impact the digital economy and society at large. However, the convergence of blockchain and 6G networks poses challenges pertaining to security and performance. In this article, we propose an approach based on the design of secure mechanisms and performance optimization to delve into the key issues surrounding the integration of blockchain and 6G networks from both security and performance perspectives. Specifically, we first introduce the application scenarios of 6G networks and blockchain's empowerment of them to highlight the necessity of combining blockchain technology with 6G. Subsequently, in order to ensure the security of communication and data transmission between blockchain and 6G networks, we have investigated the design requirements for security mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss the efficient realization of the amalgamation between blockchain and 6G networks by proposing a solution based on Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) for blockchain's asynchronous consensus protocol, alongside optimization strategies for storage and communication to meet the desired characteristics and requirements of 6G networks. Lastly, we provide valuable research directions that serve as references and guidance for the future development of the integration between blockchain and 6G networks.
Khan Maaz Bin Hasan, Mohammad Sajid, Maria Lapina, Mohammad Shahid · 5 authors
To address the limitations of 5 G, 6 G wireless networks are envisaged to provide sub-millisecond latency, ultra-high connection density, extremely high data rates, better coverage, reliability, availability, etc., for cloud computing, Internet-of-Everything, and cyber-physical systems. However, avoiding several trust-related issues in the design of the wireless networks may delay the goal. In recent years, Blockchain has become a promising technology that can transform various fields by providing innovative and profitable solutions. Blockchain’s intrinsic features, such as immutability, decentralization, anonymity, and transparency, can corroborate trust among isolated networks to secure access control, authentication, better integrity, secrecy, and effectual resource sharing. This paper paints a holistic picture of 6 G wireless networks and Blockchain, including architecture, Blockchain-assisted 6 G services, deployment, 6 G-assisted Blockchain service models, consensus mechanisms for Blockchain-as-a-Service, 6 G-assisted mining and consensus, and others. It also sheds light on the integration possibilities of Blockchain and 6 G, its potential benefits, and the effects of consensus mechanisms on 6 G concerning security, scalability, and energy consumption, to name a few. The existing 6 G projects and applications have also been summarized, along with the discussion on research and projects to standardize 6 G. Various research directions for Blockchain, 6 G, and their integration have also been explored and reported.
Due to the explosion of mobile users and the ever-increasing heterogeneity and scale of wireless networks, traditional communication protocols and optimizing methods can not satisfy future wireless network (FWN) requirements. As promising technologies, artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain are deemed as the solution for the FWN. AI, famous for its big data processing ability, will enable the FWN to self-update itself to better adapt to the dynamic network condition. Blockchain, as a distributed ledger, can guarantee data integrity, security, and privacy. In this survey, we overview the concept of AI and blockchain and present their state-of-the-art applications in wireless networks. The potential of AI and blockchain is still huge and waiting to be fully explored in wireless networks. Therefore, we introduce how AI and blockchain can assist each other in FWNs. Furthermore, we explore the current constraints of applying both technologies in the FWNs. In the final part, we discuss the future direction of the deployment of AI and blockchain in FWNs.
Krishna Murthy Kattiyan Ramamoorthy, Wei Wang, K. Sohraby, Yanxiao Zhao
In Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) wireless networks, it can be beneficial to allow closer users to relay the cache data to farther users. However, motivating short-distance NOMA users to participate in the relaying requires an appropriate incentive. In this paper, we propose a new crypto token - NOMAToken on the Ethereum blockchain leveraging the Proof of Quality of Experience (QoE) consensus mechanism. NOMAToken serves as a payment token that facilitates all monetary transactions within a NOMA network. As an Ethereum-based token, it can be held or traded against reserve tokens, establishing its own price. The optimal price for retransmission services is determined using the Vickery-Clarke-Groves (VCG) second price auction technique. We discuss the Proof-of-QoE driven consensus model and a Prospect Theory inspired scoring model to regulate the token. The consensus model is designed to ensure that the relay provides the highest possible QoE for its users, while the scoring mechanism serves as a paradigm to allow users to mint new NOMAToken and introduce liquidity.
Xin Wang, Achyut Shankar, Keqin Li, B. D. Parameshachari · 5 authors
As 6G communication technology advances, there is a growing trend of incorporating blockchain technology, which has already demonstrated its effectiveness in multiple areas. Merging blockchain technology with 6G communication opens up novel prospects for consumer electronics, facilitating the creation of secure, private, and decentralized networks, along with pioneering applications and services. We explore the synergistic incorporation of blockchain with 6G communication networks to enable secure and decentralized connectivity tailored for consumer electronics. To this end, a multi-party, dependable framework comprising intelligent edge servers, blockchain consensus, and resource-constrained electronic devices is proposed. Analytical models characterize the system’s unique cost and incentive tradeoffs, accounting for factors like energy, latency, credibility, and capacity. We analyze symmetric and asymmetric information scenarios, providing insights into optimal resource allocation strategies in different knowledge conditions within the network. Extensive simulations validate gains over benchmarks across mobile augmented reality gaming and distributed machine learning workloads, achieving over 90% offloading efficiency within 50ms latency targets as infrastructure scales up to 100 edge servers and 2000 devices. These results establish the feasibility of blended edge intelligence, cryptography, and wireless advancements in realizing next-generation consumer solutions spanning metaverse, ambient computing, and industrial IoT while preserving user control.
IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
David Cuellar, Muntadher Sallal, Christopher B. Williams
The radio frequency spectrum serves as a fundamental resource for wireless communication, encompassing various frequency bands allocated for diverse services and applications. Dynamic spectrum management (DSM) is essential to optimise the utilisation of this limited and valuable natural resource, with the aim of improving performance and adapting to changing wireless communication demands. Traditional static spectrum allocation methods have shown inefficiencies, leading to spectrum scarcity and under-utilisation. To address these challenges, the integration of blockchain and Cognitive Radio (CR) technologies has emerged as a promising approach. Blockchain, with its decentralised and secure attributes, can improve transparency and trust in spectrum allocation processes, while CR enables intelligent spectrum sensing and allocation to maximise utilisation. However, this promising approach comes with its own critical challenges, especially when dealing with the 6th Generation (6G) mobile communication. These challenges are related to the fact that the blockchain ecosystem needs to be interoperable and scalable enough to be compatible with the 6G high-demand and substantial resources. Specifically, integrating blockchain with CR requires efficient interoperability techniques where blockchain can easily and effectively interact with the CR platforms as well as radio spectrum environments. Furthermore, the spectrum management system over 6G networks needs to be designed in a way where massive 6G resources can be accommodated and managed without having any service performance degradation. This paper introduces a novel radio spectrum management model in 6G networks, named as BSM-6G, which integrates blockchain technology with CR where interoperability is preserved and scalability is maximised. Specifically, the proposed BSM-6G model merges blockchain’s transparent record keeping with CR’s intelligent spectrum management capabilities. To overcome the interoperability issue, BSM-6G provides an interoperable blockchain Oracle approach which facilitates the real-time interaction among the blockchain platform, the CR, and any data sources off-chain. This paper details all the technical and procedural challenges when implementing the proposed interoperability Oracle approach. To address the scalability challenge, BSM-6G utilizes the Proof-of-History (PoH) consensus protocol to align with the requirements of DSM in advanced networks like Beyond 5th Generation (B5G) and 6G. Evaluation results indicate that BSM-6G offers viable and less complex blockchain Oracle integration architecture measured by the technical implementation of BSM-6G, as well as low interoperability cost measured by transaction response time and transaction fee cost. Compared to state-of-the-art spectrum-based blockchain systems, BSM-6G shows a high scalable DSM-based blockchain in 6G networks measured by transactions per second (TPS).
Fatemah H. Alghamedy, Nahla El-Haggar, Albandari Alsumayt, Zeyad M. Alfawaer · 8 authors
The rapid advancement of technology has set higher standards for the next generation of wireless communication networks, known as 6G. These networks go beyond the simple task of connecting devices and aim to establish a self-sustaining system within society. One of the key factors in achieving this goal is the integration of AI services and apps through the Internet of Things (IoT), which will be made possible with the support of 6G technology. The advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) will play a crucial role in enhancing the protocols, architectures, and operations of 6G networks. To achieve collaborative AI in IoT applications, Federated Learning (FL) has emerged as a popular method. FL enables AI training without the need for data sharing, ensuring privacy and security. However, FL also faces challenges, such as the presence of malicious data and the risk of single-point failure. To address these concerns, blockchain technology (BCT) offers a secure and efficient solution. By leveraging blockchain, these issues can be effectively tackled, providing a reliable framework for implementing FL-IoT applications.
Sixth-generation (6G) communication is emerging as seamless and massive connecting of almost everything. Therefore, vehicles, being extensively linked with human mobility, require a technological pace for compatibility with the 6G era. 6G will also potentially revolutionize the Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. However, this modernization will surface several security challenges in the complex heterogeneous architecture of V2X communication in 6G. Similarly, the expansion of V2X also introduces unconventional security risks and vulnerabilities. This paper aims to provide an overview of the security challenges and solutions for V2X communication in the upcoming 6G era to visualize the future of this research domain. This paper discusses the architecture and standards utilized in 6G enabled V2X communications and provisions a comprehensive analysis of V2X security in Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability, Authentication and Access Control (CIA3) domains. Thereby, we analyze the impact of the emerging technological concepts of Blockchain and Federated Learning (FL) in 6G enabled V2X communication. Thereby, we suggest a Blockchain-enabled FL based generic security architecture for V2X communication in 6G networks. At the conclusive end, the review highlights key lessons learned and the future research directions in the domain of security of V2X communications in the 6G including; Privacy in 3D Fog Computing, Privacy in Augmented Reality, C. Secure Software Defined Networking (SDN), Physical Layer Security In THz Spectrum, SUMO (Simulation of Urban MObility) and Intrusion Detection using AI.
Dynamic spectrum sharing (DSS) has been recognized as a promising solution to meet the spectrum requirement in future wireless networks. To enhance the security and efficiency of DSS, in this paper, we propose a Non-Fungible Token (NFT) enabled spectrum sharing framework, which maps spectrum resource blocks into NFTs. Firstly, we propose a method for confirming the ownership and authenticity of resource blocks, leveraging the uniqueness of NFT. Furthermore, to facilitate spectrum sharing, we propose an NFT enabled combination auctions scheme, which is solved by an improved iterative greedy allocation algorithm. Through simulations, we find that the proposed algorithm can improve the total revenue of spectrum provider and the utilization of spectrum resources.
Mustafa Abdmajeed Shihab, Salma Abdullah Aswad, Rawshan Nuree Othman, Saadaldeen Rashid Ahmed
This survey paper provides a comprehensive overview of emerging technologies in networking, focusing on caching in Information-Centric Networking (ICN), context-aware radio access technology (RAT) selection in 5G ultra-dense networks, cryptocurrency adoption, and mobility support for routing in Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs). Adaptive RAT selection mechanisms are stressed in 5G context-aware RAT selection. RAT selection processes address context acquisition, decision-making algorithms, and resource allocation. 5G context-aware RAT selection study is suggested. The report then discusses bitcoin adoption, including its current state and benefits. Scalability, security, and regulation are difficulties. Future studies should address these issues and increase cryptocurrency adoption. Finally, LLN mobility support investigates routing techniques for mobility needs. LLN reactive and proactive routing protocols are analyzed. LLN routing mobility support research is suggested. This survey article discusses techniques, difficulties, and future research by summarizing each technology. To help researchers and practitioners make educated judgments and enhance networking technologies.
David Cordova Morales, Thi Mai Trang Nguyen, Guy Pujolle
One of the most important paradigm shifts nowa-days regarding future 6G communication is related, from one side to the desire of bringing services and data as close as possible to the end users, and from another side, to empower the user with control over their data and personal information. In this vision, private 6G networks will shape trusted zones where data center services are placed at the edge of the network. The services will follow a Web3 approach, where decentralization and zero-trust mechanisms are predominant. In this environment, a decen-tralized authentication mechanism is needed. In this paper, we propose a 6G architecture and a blockchain-like authentication scheme based on Verifiable Credentials. Our model uses zero-trust technology for a better and more trusted Internet.
Abstract Blockchain technology is getting more and more attention due to its decentralization, independence and security features. However, in wireless networks it faces a computational challenge: the proof-of-work problem. Mobile edge computing (MEC) leads to a vaild scheme by providing cloud computing capabilities to mobile devices. Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) exploits the diversity properties in the power domain to further increase system throughput and spectral efficiency. In this paper, we suggest a new NOMA-based MEC wireless blockchain network to minimize system energy consumption through task offloading decision optimization, user clustering, computing resource and transmit power allocation. In order to effectively figure out this non-convex problem, we first propose a offloading decision and user clustering algorithm, and then propose a computing resource allocation algorithm based on user Quality of Service (QoS) requirements. Finally, the transmission power can be easily determined. The numerical simulation results verify that the proposed joint optimization algorithm can effectively decrease the system energy consumption.
Qianqian Pan, Jun Wu, Jianhua Li, Wu Yang · 5 authors
As a promising technology, intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) enables future communications and networks to realize programmable data transmissions. Due to the untrustworthiness of the communication environment and the selfishness of wireless devices, secure and intelligent IRS resource management is still an open issue. In this paper, we aim to implement IRS resource scheduling with properties of security, intelligence, efficiency, and fairness. To realize the above goals, we propose the blockchain and multi-agent learning empowered incentive scheduling system for tamper-proof and undeniable IRS resource management. To overcome the low throughout and intensive computation issues of blockchain, we devise a hybrid framework combining traditional Satoshi-style and directed acyclic graph blockchain for IRS resource scheduling. Due to the storage limitation of wireless devices, an intelligent blockchain storage reduction mechanism is proposed, where a multi-dimensional multi-hierarchy feature-based scheme is designed to determine block storage priority. Based on this storage priority and device states, the selection of storage-reduction devices is formulated as a cooperative multi-agent decision problem. Then, a multi-agent deep reinforcement learning-driven scheme is proposed to determine reduction strategies. To facilitate IRS providers/subscribers participating in the proposed system and maintain the efficiency of resource scheduling, an auction-based incentive mechanism is devised. In this mechanism, we propose the IRS resource allocation scheme and the payment scheme to achieve economic robustness and high efficiency. Finally, security analysis and experiment analysis indicate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed IRS resource scheduling in intelligent reconfigurable networks.
In this letter, a layered multi-chain spectrum blockchain architecture is proposed for Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network (SAGIN) to significantly reduce system overhead and aggregated interference. Considering the dynamic characteristics of SAGIN, nodes can make hand off between different blockchains based on the interference conflict graph to maintain aggregated interference below the threshold. To further improve spectrum utilization while avoiding harmful interference caused by spectrum trading in SAGIN, a spectrum trading mechanism is proposed, which jointly considers spectrum pricing, deployment location, and transmit power optimization. Simulation results verify the effectiveness of the proposed spectrum blockchain architecture and trading mechanism.