Increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and the expansion of EV charging infrastructure present opportunities for enhancing sustainable transportation within smart cities. However, the interconnected nature of EV charging stations (EVCSs) exposes this infrastructure to various cyber threats, including false data injection, man-in-the-middle attacks, malware intrusions, and denial of service attacks. Financial attacks, such as false billing and theft of credit card information, also pose significant risks to EV users. In this work, we propose a Hyperledger Fabric-based blockchain network for EVCSs to mitigate these risks. The proposed blockchain network utilizes smart contracts to manage key processes such as authentication, charging session management, and payment verification in a secure and decentralized manner. By detecting and mitigating malicious data tampering or unauthorized access, the blockchain system enhances the resilience of EVCS networks. A comparative analysis of pre- and post-implementation of the proposed blockchain network demonstrates how it thwarts current cyberattacks in the EVCS infrastructure. Our analyses include performance metrics using the benchmark Hyperledger Caliper test, which shows the proposed solution’s low latency for real-time operations and scalability to accommodate the growth of EV infrastructure. Deployment of this blockchain-enhanced security mechanism will increase user trust and reliability in EVCS systems.
As the acceptance of Internet of Things (IoT) systems quickens, guaranteeing their sustainability and reliability poses an important challenge. Faults in IoT systems can result in resource inefficiency, high energy consumption, reduced security, and operational downtime, obstructing sustainability goals. Thus, blockchain (BC) technology, known for its decentralized and distributed characteristics, can offer significant solutions in IoT networks. BC technology provides several benefits, such as traceability, immutability, confidentiality, tamper proofing, data integrity, and privacy, without utilizing a third party. Recently, several consensus algorithms, including ripple, proof of stake (PoS), proof of work (PoW), and practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT), have been developed to enhance BC efficiency. Combining fault detection algorithms and BC technology can result in a more reliable and secure IoT environment. Thus, this study presents a sustainable BC-Driven Edge Verification with a Consensus Approach-enabled Optimal Deep Learning (BCEVCA-ODL) approach for fault recognition in sustainable IoT environments. The proposed BCEVCA-ODL technique incorporates the merits of the BC, IoT, and DL techniques to enhance IoT networks’ security, trustworthiness, and efficacy. IoT devices have a substantial level of decentralized decision-making capacity in BC technology to achieve a consensus on the accomplishment of intrablock transactions. A stacked sparse autoencoder (SSAE) model is employed to detect faults in IoT networks. Lastly, the Piranha Foraging Optimization Algorithm (PFOA) approach is used for optimum hyperparameter tuning of the SSAE approach, which assists in enhancing the fault recognition rate. A wide range of simulations was accomplished to highlight the efficacy of the BCEVCA-ODL technique. The BCEVCA-ODL technique achieved a superior FDA value of 100% at a fault probability of 0.00, outperforming the other evaluated methods. The proposed work highlights the significance of embedding sustainability into IoT systems, underlining how advanced fault detection can provide environmental and operational benefits. The experimental outcomes pave the way for greener IoT technologies that support global sustainability initiatives.
In recent times, the number of fake drugs has increased dramatically, which has resulted in millions of victims severely affected by poisoning and treatment failures, resulting in a need for Drug Supply Chain (DSC) traceability. The DSC is generally reluctant to share traceability data and includes several parties having heterogeneous interests. Moreover, existing provenance and traceability systems for DSCs need more trust, data sharing transparency, and separated data storage. By realizing decentralized, trustless systems, a decentralized Blockchain (BC)-based solution is proposed to tackle these constraints. BC is an immutable, decentralized, shared network that allows management directly through a peer-to-peer (P2P) network without the necessity of a central authority to check transactions. This study proposes a new Blockchain Non-Fungible Token-based Drug Traceability with Enhanced Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Management (BNFTDT-EPSCM) model. The proposed BNFTDT-EPSCM model presents transparent and more secure reporting of changes in the operating condition of transported pharmaceutical products to prevent drug recalls. The Ethereum BC enables transactions and computational services using the cryptocurrency Ether (ETH). Simultaneously, an enhanced Byzantine fault-tolerant consensus (RB-BFT) leverages a reputation system to address reliability issues of primary nodes and reduce communication complexity inherent in the Practical Byzantine algorithm (PBFT). The BNFTDT-EPSCM model presents a decentralized solution using Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) to improve the traceability and tracking capabilities of the standard serialization process. In addition, the BNFTDT-EPSCM model employs a Deep Belief Network (DBN) approach to perform the inbound logistics task prediction process. Finally, the Tasmanian Devil Optimization (TDO) method is utilized to enhance the hyperparameter tuning of the DBN approach. A detailed set of simulations was executed to examine the effectiveness of the BNFTDT-EPSCM approach, demonstrating a higher throughput at the highest user count of 6000 and achieving 551.22 TPS, significantly outperforming existing models.
This article explores the integration of 6G technology in intelligent healthcare, focusing on crucial security and privacy concerns amidst the growing demand for advanced solutions driven by aging populations. Recognizing the potential of 6G's high bandwidth, low latency, and enhanced security features, this article proposes a multi-layered security and privacy framework incorporating artificial intelligence, machine learning, and distributed ledger technology to safeguard sensitive patient data within the 6G ecosystem. This holistic framework addresses potential vulnerabilities in emerging 6G healthcare applications, such as holographic telepresence and digital twin technology, by implementing robust encryption, authentication, and access control mechanisms. Furthermore, the article examines the transformative impact of 6G on these applications, enabling real-time remote diagnosis and personalized treatment plans with enhanced security and privacy. By addressing the unique security challenges and unlocking novel use cases, this article provides a multi-layer framework for realizing the full potential of 6G in revolutionizing healthcare delivery.
Shehla Afzal, Muhammad Ameer Hamza, Danish Shehzad, Irfan Ud Din · 6 authors
The security of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is crucial, and blockchain has emerged as a frequently adopted method for securing data storage and transfer through decentralized, trustless, and peer-to-peer systems. The integration and interoperation of blockchain and IIoT are significant developments in computational communication systems. Hence this paper presents a systematic analysis of the most commonly used blockchain-based security methods including consensus algorithms, smart contracts, and distributed ledger technology, and their application in securing IIoT. The paper highlights the importance of considering the security issues of IIoT and provides a thorough analysis of the blockchain-based solutions available to address these challenges. However, the security of IIoT remains a major concern due to the vulnerabilities that exist in the system. It also discusses the advantages as well as limitations of each method, providing a comprehensive understanding of their suitability for different IIoT use cases. Thus the integration of blockchain technology with IIoT has the potential to revolutionize the way industrial systems operate and provide a secure and robust environment. The paper also suggests areas for further research to explore the full potential of blockchain technology in securing IIoT applications.
The goal of this current study is to address important concerns about data security, privacy, and integrity by amalgamating blockchain technology with the Internet of Medical Things. The IoMT ecosystem consists of wearables, implanted sensors, and remote monitoring tools that generate sensitive medical data continuously, revealing several security vulnerabilities. Blockchain, with its principles of decentralization, transparency, immutability, and cryptographic security, opens up new avenues for securing health data without the use of third-party authorities. This paper outlines the methodology used in this review, including a systematic analysis of relevant literature, utilizing the PRISMA framework to evaluate sources. The analysis identifies key protocols and components of blockchain relevant to IoMT, highlights challenges, and provides solutions. Key findings emphasize blockchain’s ability to reduce attacks using distributed ledgers, permissioned access, and encrypted transactions. Furthermore, blockchain may improve patient care by providing real-time data exchange and enabling interoperability across health systems.
It is quite challenging to monitor goods quality or security issues due to the intricacy of a tracking system, particularly for the fundamental farming food supply chains that contribute to making up everyday feeds of individuals. There are a number of significant issues with the current agricultural food tracking systems, including a large number of subjects, challenging interactions brought on by lengthy logistics phases, and user and centrally managed distrust of data. The traceability issue in agricultural food tracking systems is successfully resolved by the development of blockchain technology. In order to reduce the requirement for central organizations and departments and enhance the dependability, safety, and authenticity of records of transactions, this work suggests a structure based on smart contracts and consortiums to monitor and document the process of agricultural food tracking system, implement transparency and accessibility, and dismantle data centers between businesses. Farmers simultaneously store file hashes in smart contracts and record environmental and agricultural development information in the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), which improves the safety of information and mitigates the issue of blockchain storage overflow. The proposed system demonstrated superior performance with reduced delay in response (0.035) and increased transmission speed (265), reception speed (305) and processing power (17.65) compared to Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric.
Yang Yang, Min Lin, Yangfei Lin, Chen Zhang · 5 authors
In the area of agriculture and livestock management, the integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a groundbreaking strategy to enhance operational efficiency and advance intelligent process management. However, this sector faces significant challenges, including ambiguity in product origins and limited regulatory oversight of IoT devices. This paper explores the innovative integration of blockchain technology within the agricultural and livestock IoT, highlighting how this convergence significantly enhances operational security and transparency. We provide an in-depth review of the latest applications and advancements of blockchain in these domains, offering a comprehensive analysis of the current state of technology and its implications. Furthermore, this paper discusses the potential future development trajectories in agricultural and livestock IoT, emphasizing blockchain’s role in addressing current challenges and shaping future innovations. The findings suggest that blockchain technology not only improves data security and trustworthiness but also opens new avenues for efficient and transparent management in agriculture and animal husbandry.
Ömer Melih Gül, Ali Hamidoğlu, Muhammad Khurram Khan, Shui Yu
Advances and growth of the Internet of Drones (IoD) allow devices, applications, and people to communicate and share data, improving comfort in daily life, commercial, and search-and-rescue operations in smart cities. This article investigates security issues in the IoD by considering both physical threats and mainly cybersecurity threats. Blockchain is considered as a promising technology for tackling security threats in IoD. Nevertheless, many distributed ledger systems do not have any low transaction latency, because the consensus protocols have to synchronize the whole blockchain. This article presents a novel game-theoretical approach, Stackelberg-followed Nash Game, for multirobot task allocation via secure communications in IoD.Finally, several challenges and future research trends are discussed about blockchain applications in uncrewed aerial vehicles.
The food and agriculture sector is a cornerstone of critical infrastructure (CI), underpinning global food security, public health, and economic stability. However, the increasing digitalization and connectivity of operational technologies (OTs) in this sector expose it to significant cybersecurity risks. Blockchain technology (BT) has emerged as a transformative solution for addressing these challenges by enhancing network security, traceability, and system resilience. This study presents a comprehensive review of BT applications in OT security for food and agriculture CI, employing bibliometric and content analysis methods. A total of 124 relevant articles were identified from six databases, including the Web of Science Core Collection and MEDLINE®. Bibliometric analysis was conducted across five dimensions: publication year, literature type, journal distribution, country contributions, and keyword trends. The findings are meticulously organized through tables, charts, and graphs. The year 2018 marked a surge in research within this domain, with the IEEE Internet of Things Journal and IEEE ACESS emerging as the most prolific journals, each boasting nine publications. The United States, China, and India are at the forefront in terms of journal citation counts. Our analysis determined that a reference count of 37 serves as an appropriate threshold. Otoum Safa stands out as the author with the highest number of published articles, totaling four. Keywords such as “blockchain”, “internet of things”, “smart contract”, “security”, and “critical infrastructure” appear with significant frequency. The statistics, trends, and insights gleaned from this bibliometric analysis can guide researchers in the OTCI field to forge a coherent and logical research trajectory. Content analysis further identified six key research areas within this domain: identity authentication and data verification, secure access control, attack detection and perception, data security and protection, data backup and recovery, and attack assessment and attribution. Based on these insights, a general framework is proposed to guide future research and practical applications of BT in securing OT within food and agriculture CI. This study systematically analyzes the current research landscape, challenges, and opportunities for BT in securing the OT critical to food and agriculture CI. By bridging the gap between blockchain innovations and the operational needs of the food and agriculture sector, this work contributes to advancing strategic implementation and improving the security of CI systems.
In smart applications, streaming IoT data is essential to building trust in sustainable IoT solutions. However, most existing systems for storing and disseminating IoT data streams lack reliability, security, and transparency, primarily due to centralized architectures that create single points of failure. To address these limitations, this research introduces TraVel, a blockchain and transfer learning-based framework for secure IoT data management. TraVel leverages decentralized IPFS storage to handle large data volumes effectively, integrating with a private Ethereum blockchain to enhance data integrity and accessibility. In the proposed scheme, the smart home ([Formula: see text]) data is collected securely and accessed over the BC with a unique hash key generated on the IPFS for all the files. Self-executing Ethereum smart contracts enforce access control and verify data integrity, allowing only validated, non-malicious data to be stored. An adversarial domain adaptation (DA) learning model is employed to detect and filter malicious data before it enters the blockchain. TraVel's performance is evaluated on blockchain parameters, with simulations conducted on REMIX IDE and InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), demonstrating its reliability and scalability for secure IoT data dissemination.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Blockchain technology has significant applications in medicine, particularly in ensuring the confidentiality of medical records and enhancing the transparency of healthcare data management. Rapid digitalization in healthcare presents challenges related to interoperability and privacy, which traditional centralized systems struggle to address. Blockchain, as immutable and distributed ledger technology initially designed for cryptocurrencies, offers a solution by securing and decentralizing healthcare data management. The NAIBHSC framework exemplifies this integration, utilizing blockchain alongside IoT, cloud computing, and AI to enhance the supply chain management of healthcare products and electronic health records. Additionally, its implementation in car insurance systems showcases automated damage identification and secure premium transactions. The study concludes that by combining blockchain with modern technologies, solutions can be developed that enhance security, transparency, and efficiency across various domains, ultimately fostering trust and innovation within critical industries.
Nikos Kostopoulos, Yannis C. Stamatiou, Constantinos Halkiopoulos, Hera Antonopoulou
Background: Blockchain technology can transform military operations, increasing security and transparency and gaining efficiency. It addresses many problems related to data security, privacy, communication, and supply chain management. The most researched aspects are its integration with emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, the IoT, application in uncrewed aerial vehicles, and secure communications. Methods: A systematic review of 43 peer-reviewed articles was performed to discover the applications of blockchain in defense. Key areas analyzed include the role of blockchain in securing communications, fostering transparency, promoting real-time data sharing, and using smart contracts for maintenance management. Challenges were assessed, including scalability, interoperability, and integration with the legacy system, alongside possible solutions, such as sharding and optimized consensus mechanisms. Results: In the case of blockchain, great potential benefits were shown in enhancing military operations, including secure communication, immutable record keeping, and real-time integration of data with the IoT and AI. Smart contracts optimized resource allocation and reduced maintenance procedures. However, challenges remain, such as scalability, interoperability, and high energy requirements. Proposed solutions, like sharding and hybrid architecture, show promise to address these issues. Conclusions: Blockchain is set to revolutionize the efficiency and security of the military. Its potential is enormous, but it must overcome scalability, interoperability, and integration issues. Further research and strategic adoption will thus allow blockchain to become one of the cornerstones of future military operations.
Uncrewed aerial systems (UASs) were popularly used by hobbyists in the past, but they have now become critical enablers for managing disasters, handling emergencies, and so on. For example, one of their most critical applications is to provide seamless wireless communication services in remote rural areas. Thus, it is substantial to identify and consider the different security challenges in the research and development associated with advanced UAS-based B5G/6G architectures. Catering to this requirement, this article conducts a comprehensive review of the security aspects of UASs with respect to the 5G/6G system architecture, its enabling technologies, and privacy issues. It exhibits security integration at all the protocol stack layers and analyzes the existing mechanisms to secure UAS-based B5G/6G communications and its energy and power optimization factors. Last, this article also summarizes modern technological trends for establishing security and protecting UAS-based systems, along with the open challenges and strategies for future research work.
The pharmaceutical industry faces critical challenges like counterfeiting and supply chain inefficiencies, jeopardizing public health and the sector’s integrity. This paper introduces the efficient blockchain-enhanced transparent pharmaceutical supply chain management (EBETPSCM) model, which innovatively integrates blockchain and big data analytics to enhance traceability, security, and operational efficiency. At the heart of this model is the strategic use of Hyperledger fabric, renowned for its decentralized consensus mechanism and robust cryptographic methods. This ensures the security and reliability of the supply chain, with its decentralized nature bolstering data immutability, a key factor in maintaining the integrity of supply chain information. Concurrently, big data analytics provide real-time insights, enhancing stakeholder visibility across the chain. Our study critically appraises prevailing challenges, highlighting blockchain’s potential to achieve data immutability and transparency. Empirical evidence from existing studies affirms blockchain’s role in safeguarding pharmaceutical data and refining supply chain operations. The proposed EBETPSCM model integrates a comprehensive framework, addressing technical, methodological, and regulatory aspects. Theoretical outcomes include a well-defined conceptual model, technical insights into blockchain, and big data analytics methodologies. Practically, the study endeavors to implement a prototype system to demonstrate significant improvements in efficiency, transparency, and security. To overcome extant challenges, we advocate for resolving technological issues, enhancing collaborative efforts, and developing new legislative frameworks. The anticipated outcomes promise substantial advancements in safety, efficiency, and transparency within pharmaceutical supply chains. Conclusively, our study emphasizes the necessity of continuous research, collaborative engagement, and regulatory support for the successful adoption of these technologies in the pharmaceutical sector.
This study explores how blockchain technology can be strategically applied to improve data security and privacy across key sectors, including healthcare, finance, and supply chain management. Through a modular, Python-based implementation using permissioned blockchains, the research evaluates performance metrics such as transaction speed, data integrity, encryption, and anomaly detection. Results indicate that blockchain systems significantly enhance data protection by ensuring immutability, decentralization, and real-time validation. In healthcare, the system effectively flagged anomalous records; in finance, it supported secure, high-volume transactions; and in supply chains, it enabled transparent, tamper-proof tracking. Despite promising outcomes, challenges such as interoperability, scalability, and regulatory compliance remain. The study also highlights ethical considerations, particularly in balancing transparency with privacy. Overall, blockchain emerges as a robust and adaptable solution for modern data security needs. The findings provide a foundation for further research and practical guidance for organizations seeking to adopt blockchain in sensitive and high-risk data environments.
Blockchain technology which was first used to support the creation of digital currencies especially bitcoins, has turned out to be revolutionary and is poised to solve various problems in different fields. Some of the benefits deposited in the decentralized, immutable, and transparent system include increased efficiency, security, and trust in the most common digital transactions. Some of the foundational theories on which Blockchain revolves include decentralization theory, game theory, trust theory, transaction cost theory, and the theory of innovation diffusion. These frameworks make it secure, transparent, and less costly in comparison to a centralized structure hence making its usage widespread in finance, healthcare, and supply chains. This paper employed a structured review of the past literature as a research method. The choice of articles was made according to the relevance to the topics such as Blockchain application, issues, and trends. Literature was reviewed and divided by sector in order to identify trends, findings and gaps in the literature. The importance of high impact-factor journals and papers published between the years 2015 and 2024 was considered. In this project, a method of secondary research with an emphasis on qualities research was conducted. Academic articles, conference papers, and industry reports were sourced from Google Scholar using keywords such as “Blockchain in Finance,” “Blockchain Challenges,” and “Future of Blockchain Technology.” The data was thematically analysed to identify trends and classify the findings under three major themes: applications, challenges, and future prospects. The research also shows that sectors such as finance (for instance, cross-border payment, smart contracts), health (for instance, patient records), logistics (for instance, tracking and tracing), and government (for instance, safe voting systems) are experiencing a revolutionary shift due to Blockchain. However, some disadvantages include scalability, lack of regulation, high energy, and security concerns.
N. El Inani, Faouzia Benabbou, Khadija Sabiri, Amal Zaouch
With the advancement of blockchain technology, Solidity-based smart contracts have become essential for automating and securing digital transactions across various sectors, from finance to supply chain management. These contracts enable decentralized exchanges without intermediaries, enhancing transparency. However, their immutable nature poses security challenges: any flaw in the code becomes permanent, exposing contracts to attacks and leading to financial and reputational losses. This paper provides a comparative analysis of recent machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques developed for detecting vulnerabilities in Solidity based smart contracts. By evaluating various approaches, we assess their effectiveness in identifying common threats such as reentrancy attacks and integer overflows. Finally, we highlight the importance of scalable, AI driven security solutions to address the growing complexity of vulnerabilities.
J. Thimmia Raja, Ashish Ashish, Sindhu Boianapalli, Soma Sabitha M · 6 authors
Blockchain technology, as a growing innovation, offers a viable solution to enhance transparency, traceability, and efficiency in global supply chains. While blockchain has great potential, several challenges remain, including scalability, integration with legacy systems, standardization, energy consumption, privacy concerns, and regulatory uncertainty. This enrollment of data is hoped to tackle these problems of dilemmas, whislt subsequent improved effective equates being more reasonable in terms of deploying blockchain applications. With the goal of offering a bridge to most projects still unsure whether to adopt Blockchain technology or to continue under what we call "Blockchain in the cloud" approach, this study introduces effective solutions on how to integrate Blockchain with current systems through innovative hybrid systems, standardized user protocols, and new consensus protocols that optimize cost of implementation and environmental impact. The other aspect of the research undertakes to design clear regulatory frameworks and change management systems that can aid in the adoption of blockchain technology for traditional supply chain stakeholders. By utilizing real-world case studies and the simplification of smart contract deployment, this work illustrates the practical benefits blockchain can provide in enhancing supply chain operations. In conclusion, the goal of this study is to pioneer a sustainable, secure, and efficient blockchain ecosystem that promotes trust, transparency, and collaboration among supply chain partners, ensuring the future viability of the technology.