This Utilize an efficiency-oriented procedure this research compares the achievement of two important Ethereum token standards: ERC-20 and ERC-721. Examining these processes under various operating settings while applying improving performance plan of action is the main goal. The research uses a administer Ethereum test net environment to apply maximizing techniques like batch processing, gas-efficient code, and meta data squeezing in addition to implementing token standards. Measured and examined are important performance indicators such as gas consumption, execution time, transaction output, and storage efficiency. According to the results, ERC-20 tokens are better ordered in routine and high-volume transactions because of their straight forward logic, but ERC-721 tokens take more resources at first because of their single identifiers and metadata needful although they manifest noticeable gains after optimization. The research highlight the theme of choosing a settlement according to the demands of the application, supporting ERC-20 for exchangeable asset management and ERC-721 for use cases involving non-exchangeable assets. Besides, it provide developers and blockchain architects practical advice for creating segregated apps (dApps) that are scalable, economical, and result-oriented. Due to its straighter forward and harmonious token logic, ERC-20 performs better than ERC-721 in terms of gas ability, transaction throughput, and storage utilization, according to the contrast analysis. Due to specialized token IDs and metadata, ERC-721, which is deliberated for unique assets, has increased gas expenses and storage on high. However, ERC-721 speed is greatly boosted by improving methods including batch processing and metadata compression. If presentation improving are used, ERC-721 is more looked right on for handling non- fungible assets like NFTs, but ERC-20 is more appropriate for high-frequency, exchangeable transactions like payments and DeFi.
As the application fields of permissioned blockchains broaden and the integration of related industries accelerates, there is a rising demand for permissioned blockchains to support scalable networks. This paper proposes a Partitioned, Parallel and Practicable permissioned blockchain, called as P3-Chain, which builds upon a multi-shard two-tier architecture. Its key design insight is to extend scalability in terms of consensus algorithm protocol, architecture, and scheduling. In particular, P3-Chain employs a dual-consensus algorithm with decoupled intra- and inter-shard operations, allowing them to run in parallel and asynchronously under practical scenarios. To resolve the conflicting transaction problem brought by this decoupled dual-consensus algorithm, P3-Chain incorporates a state-access locking mechanism. P3-Chain is implemented in Golang across multiple OSs, and it is evaluated on Hyperledger Caliper testbed, ensuring standardized and fair benchmarking. Through extensive experiments, the results indicate that P3-Chain can achieve TPS$3.3\times $that of FISCO,$3.3\times $that of partitioned FISCO,$2.7\times $that of Fabric,$2.3\times $that of AHL+,$2.2\times $that of SharPer and$7.4\times $that of Ethereum when system contains 32 nodes. Meanwhile, within the same experimental settings, P3-chain is scalable to 1024 nodes successfully, while Fabric and FISCO run with 64 nodes only. Furthermore, P3-Chain only sacrifice less than a 10% performance when the system scale expands$256\times $from 4 to 1024.
In timing-sensitive blockchain applications, such as decentralized finance (DeFi), achieving first-come-first-served (FCFS) transaction ordering among decentralized nodes is critical to prevent frontrunning attacks. Themis [CCS'23], a state-of-the-art decentralized FCFS ordering system, has become a key reference point for high-throughput fair ordering systems for real-world blockchain applications, such as rollup chains and decentralized sequencing, and has influenced the design of several subsequent proposals. In this paper, we critically analyze its core system property of practical batch-order fairness and evaluate the frontrunning resistance claim of Themis. We present the Ambush attack, a new frontrunning technique that achieves nearly 100% success against the practical batch-order fair system with only a single malicious node and negligible attack costs. This attack causes a subtle temporary information asymmetry among nodes, which is allowed due to the heavily optimized communication model of the system. A fundamental trade-off we identify is a challenge in balancing security and performance in these systems; namely, enforcing timely dissemination of transaction information among nodes (to mitigate frontrunning) can easily lead to non-negligible network overheads (thus, degrading overall throughput performance). We show that it is yet possible to balance these two by delaying transaction dissemination to a certain tolerable level for frontrunning mitigation while maintaining high throughput. Our evaluation demonstrates that the proposed delayed gossiping mechanism can be seamlessly integrated into existing systems with only minimal changes.
Layer 2 rollups offer promising solutions to address Ethereum's scalability issues. However, the centralized nature of the sequencer in these rollups makes them vulnerable to denial of service attacks, in which adversaries overwhelm the sequencer with invalid transactions that cannot be included in blocks, thereby exhausting its computational resources for transaction processing. To mitigate such threat, layer 2 rollups implement the legality check mechanism to filter out invalid transactions before they reach the sequencer.
This paper presents the revolutionary Kera Protocol, a mathematically proven blockchain architecture that fundamentally solves the dual crises of accessibility and sustainability plaguing contemporary decentralized finance systems. The work addresses the stark reality that 99.95% of humanity remains excluded from blockchain validation due to prohibitive capital requirements. The paper's core contribution establishes the first provably sustainable economic model in blockchain history through a dynamic APY allocation algorithm that maintains the fundamental invariant OBLIGATIONS = REVENUE at every 12-second block interval. This mathematical constraint creates theoretical impossibility of protocol insolvency, directly addressing the $108 billion in losses from failed DeFi protocols like Terra/LUNA, Celsius, and BlockFi that promised unsustainable fixed returns. The research introduces an innovative vault-to-pool economic architecture leveraging 20x capital efficiency to deliver mathematically certain 102% APY returns—derived from real interest accrual rather than speculative mechanisms. Rigorous validation through the MALIV (Multi-Agent Long-term Investment Validator) model simulates 14,600 days across 40 years, incorporating realistic market cycles, black swan events (0.5% probability), and extreme stress scenarios including 99% revenue drops. Across 3,000+ simulation runs, the protocol demonstrated 100% sustainability with perfect equality maintenance. The paper details seven diversified revenue streams projected to scale from $87 million in Year 1 to $35.75 billion by Year 5, eliminating reliance on inflationary tokenomics. Technical innovations include autonomous validator bot systems that eliminate slashing risks, browser-based validation infrastructure, and deflationary token buyback mechanisms. The work represents PhD-level contributions to solving the DeFi Sustainability Trilemma, with planned submissions to leading academic journals in financial economics and computational economics.
Abstract Organizations increasingly require secure document management with integrity guarantees beyond traditional audit logs, particularly in regulated industries where external accountability is critical. While blockchain technologies provide strong tamper-detection, they present significant enterprise adoption challenges including cost volatility, low throughput, and unpredictable operational expenses. This thesis proposes a Centralized Ledger System (CLS) that provides blockchain-inspired integrity verification through self-hosted architecture without external dependencies. The system implements a three-phase entry lifecycle, signature collection and verification, supporting multi-party transactions with asynchronous workflows. A multi-ledger architecture enables organizational segregation of business domains while maintaining referential integrity. Key contributions include automated receipt generation for independent verification, selective payload erasure preserving cryptographic validation, entry linking for audit simplification, and integration of security services with two-factor authentication and key management. The modular design enables flexible deployment while maintaining cryptographic guarantees equivalent to blockchain systems. The solution addresses the gap between traditional audit systems and distributed ledgers by providing cost-predictable, vendor-independent functionality that integrates into existing workflows without specialized blockchain expertise.
Polygon Chain Development Kit (CDK) Validium is a Layer 2 blockchain scaling solution that processes transactions off-chain. It uses Polygon’s distinctive approach to Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) implemented within their Zero-Knowledge Ethereum Virtual Machine (zkEVM). A key factor in its successful deployment is robustness, ensuring that users can trust their transactions will be processed accurately and promptly. This research concerns developing robust validation methodologies and comprehensive testing strategies targeting the “double-spending” problem within Polygon CDK Validium. We indicate theoretical scenarios where double-spending vulnerabilities could arise in Polygon CDK Validium by identifying how execution errors can combine with a specific category of flawed constraints to create vulnerabilities. When combined with what we classify as Invalid PIL Constraints For EVM Specification Vulnerabilities (IPCFESV), these errors can trigger problematic behaviours. We further illustrate how erroneous behaviour resulting from IPCFESV can lead to cascading involvement in withdrawal operations resulting in irreversible cross-layer double-spending. We also illustrate how a protocol anti-censorship mechanism bypasses standard validation checks, thereby intensifying reliance on constraint correctness. We then propose ways to determine the correct behaviour. We propose a method to utilise Polygon’s integration testing framework for generating execution traces for de-facto ERC-20 fungible token standard. The outcomes of this study will form the foundational basis for the subsequent development of practical testing and verification methods for Polygon CDK Validium. Implementation and empirical validation remain as future work.
This study presents a blockchain-backed Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) service for distributed clouds, addressing auditable authorization under multi-region latency and consistency constraints. Although end-to-end costs and tail impacts of permissioned ledgers in RBAC are under-quantified, the present study implements a multi-region deployment with Istanbul Byzantine Fault Tolerance (IBFT), batched commits, and an off-chain cache, with evaluation against centralized and event-sourced baselines, throughput reported in requests per second (RPS), and calibration via Expected Calibration Error (ECE) and Brier Score using multi-seed runs and moving-block bootstrap. At the target load, the candidate achieved 145.0 +/- 4.6 ms 95th percentile (p95) latency and 1008 +/- 13 RPS while meeting the 150.0 ms Service Level Objective at 1000 rps; the 99th percentile (p99) policy-update consistency lag measured 1750.0 +/- 150.0 ms. Connectivity remains the bottleneck. The parts are familiar; the sequencing is not, combining ledger finality with cache-assisted reads and bounded block intervals to narrow the gap to centralized designs under controlled failures. These findings indicate that tamper-evident auditing can be added with modest overhead for enterprise security operators planning multi-region cloud authorization.
Blockchain interoperability is increasingly recognized as the centerpiece for robust interactions among decentralized services. Blockchain ledgers are generally tamper-proof and thus enforce non-repudiation for transactions recorded within the same network. However, such a guarantee does not hold for cross blockchain transactions. When disruptions occur due to malicious activities or system failures within one blockchain network, foreign networks can take advantage by denying legitimate claims or mounting fraudulent liabilities against the defenseless network. In response, this paper introduces InterSnap, a novel blockchain snapshot archival methodology, for enabling auditability of cross blockchain transactions, enforcing non-repudiation. InterSnap introduces cross-chain transaction receipts that ensure their irrefutability. Snapshots of ledger data along with these receipts are utilized as non-repudiable proof of bilateral agreements among different networks. InterSnap enhances system resilience through a distributed snapshot generation process, need-based snapshot scheduling process, and archival storage and sharing via decentralized platforms. Through a prototype implementation based on Hyperledger Fabric, we conducted experiments using on-premise machines, AWS public cloud instances, as well as a private cloud infrastructure. We establish that InterSnap can recover from malicious attacks while preserving cross chain transaction receipts. Additionally, our proposed solution demonstrates adaptability to increasing loads while securely transferring snapshot archives with minimal overhead.
Today's distributed payment systems must function correctly despite the inherent presence of asynchrony, partial failures, and third-party integrations. Unlike typical RPC-based workflows used in software development, payment flows are heavily influenced by external delays, retries, timeouts, and nondeterministic state changes across multiple systems of record. A fault-tolerant ledger abstraction that decouples payment intent from execution enables safe retries and supports service events that may arrive out of order. Correctness and safety depend on distributed transaction constructs such as outbox/inbox patterns, compensation workflows, and time-bounded state machines to contain the effects of race conditions, double submissions, and ambiguous or indeterminate outcomes. A declarative reconciliation framework continuously verifies consistency between internal and external systems, enabling real-time anomaly detection and facilitating orchestration and recovery. These pragmatic engineering approaches, validated through simulations and production-level benchmarks, offer guidance for building resilient payment infrastructures in naturally asynchronous and failure-prone environments.
The absence of a fully decentralized, verifiable, and privacy-preserving communication protocol for autonomous agents remains a core challenge in decentralized computing. Existing systems often rely on centralized intermediaries, which reintroduce trust bottlenecks, or lack decentralized identity-resolution mechanisms, limiting persistence and cross-network interoperability. We propose the Decentralized Interstellar Agent Protocol (DIAP), a novel framework for agent identity and communication that enables persistent, verifiable, and trustless interoperability in fully decentralized environments. DIAP binds an agent's identity to an immutable IPFS or IPNS content identifier and uses zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) to dynamically and statelessly prove ownership, removing the need for record updates. We present a Rust SDK that integrates Noir (for zero-knowledge proofs), DID-Key, IPFS, and a hybrid peer-to-peer stack combining Libp2p GossipSub for discovery and Iroh for high-performance, QUIC based data exchange. DIAP introduces a zero-dependency ZKP deployment model through a universal proof manager and compile-time build script that embeds a precompiled Noir circuit, eliminating the need for external ZKP toolchains. This enables instant, verifiable, and privacy-preserving identity proofs. This work establishes a practical, high-performance foundation for next-generation autonomous agent ecosystems and agent-to-agent (A to A) economies.
As blockchain technology deepens its integration into various fields, the challenges of blockchain as an isolated distributed ledger are becoming increasingly prominent. Effectively breaking the isolation of various blockchain ledgers and enabling information flow and value transfer between blockchains is a key area of current blockchain research. Hash timelocks are a key technology for achieving this cross-chain nature, offering advantages such as decentralization, ease of implementation, and high cross-chain efficiency. However, the hash timelock mechanism still suffers from issues such as the inability to consistently match cross-chain transaction partners and the inability to transfer assets. This severely impacts the user experience and hinders the usability of hash timelocks in cross-chain transactions. Therefore, building on existing hash timelock technology, this paper proposes a mechanism that utilizes an intermediate user pool to enable instant cross-chain asset transfers. This mechanism also incorporates a dynamic transaction matching algorithm to achieve efficient transaction matching. This mechanism not only enables decentralized cross-chain asset transfers, but also eliminates the indeterminate waiting time required for matching by traditional hash timelock mechanisms. Finally, experiments demonstrate the feasibility of this new mechanism, demonstrating significant efficiency advantages for small and medium-sized cross-chain transactions, eliminating the need for additional transaction matching time.
Blockchain technology offers a mechanism for storing data with cryptographic links between blocks, creating a tamper-resistant ledger. Although this immutability ensures data integrity, it complicates recovery in cases of errors or intrusions. This work proposes Bonsai, an error and intrusion recovery system designed for token exchanges on Ethereum based applications. The system includes a custom ERC-20 token (BON) that maintains a one to one peg with ETH tokens while enabling transaction reversals through arbitration trials and an insurance mechanism to protect users against losses. Our experimental evaluation on Ethereum Sepolia and ZKsync Sepolia demonstrates that Bonsai can successfully trace and reverse token flows through up to five wallets in under 20 seconds, at an average cost of approximately ${\$}$0.30 on ZKsync. Existing blockchain recovery approaches are slow and costly, with reversal operations taking up to 126 seconds, and some may not be able to complete the reversal. The system provides a practical solution for blockchain applications requiring error and intrusion correction capabilities while preserving the authentication, integrity, immutability, and non-repudiation properties of Blockchain.
Blockchain technology relies on decentralized data management across various applications to ensure secure transactions. Consensus algorithms play a critical role in maintaining consistency and trust within decentralized environments, laying the groundwork for further exploration. This paper presents a simulation-based benchmarking framework for evaluating major consensus mechanisms Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), Proof of Authority (PoA), Proof of Capacity (PoC), Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG), and Proof of Biometric Uniqueness (PoBU). A MATLAB-based simulation environment integrated with Docker-emulated blockchain nodes was developed to measure performance across several parameters, including throughput, latency, energy consumption, finality probability, fault tolerance, and resource requirements. Results show that DAG achieves the highest throughput (1600 TPS) and lowest latency (0.8 s), while PoBU offers strong fault tolerance (50%) and energy efficiency (60 J/tx). PBFT and PoA provide ultra-fast confirmations with limited decentralization, whereas PoW demonstrate poor scalability and energy efficiency. These findings highlight the potential for a unified benchmarking framework for consensus mechanisms and provide practical insights for selecting consensus protocols for specific blockchain applications.
We present a declarative approach to on-chain limit order books (LOBs) that prioritizes formal verification over raw throughput. Unlike automated market makers, LOBs offer granular control and capital efficiency but are difficult to verify when implemented imperatively in Solidity. Using Pint, a declarative domain-specific language, we encode LOB matching logic, price-time priority, partial fills, and asset conservation, as first-order constraints. Off-chain solvers compute valid state transitions, while the blockchain performs lightweight constraint verification. We implement eight LOB predicates and evaluate performance using real-world transaction traces. Our declarative LOBs achieve 141 predicates/s for simple operations and 11 predicates/s for complex settlement with 1,000 accounts. Performance correlates strongly with state access patterns rather than constraint complexity. Critically, our approach eliminates verification challenges that make imperative smart contracts hard to formally verify, such as unbounded loops, recursion, cross-contract/function calls, and complex control flow. This enables correctness-by-construction through constraint satisfaction, removing the need to prove implementation conformance to specifications. This work demonstrates the first practical evidence that declarative LOBs achieve reasonable performance while providing superior verification guarantees for DeFi protocols.