Blockchain Papers

Yanxun Gu, Kun Yang, Jian Cao, Mingqian Feng

The accurate quantification of grid carbon emission factors (CEFs) is foundational for robust carbon accounting, effective climate policy, and credible corporate sustainability reporting. Traditional national-average CEFs are fundamentally inadequate, perpetuating the “copper plate” fallacy by ignoring profound spatial and temporal heterogeneity within interconnected power systems. This review critically evaluates the emerging paradigm of “grid hierarchical and zonal division” as a necessary response to this challenge. We systematically analyze the limitations of existing methodologies, highlighting the significant gap between top-down administrative calculations and bottom-up physical flow tracing. As our central contribution, we propose an integrated three-layer framework that synthesizes established but previously siloed concepts, physical flow modeling, policy boundary definition, and data architecture, into a unified structure. The novelty lies in their explicit integration and the modeling of interdependencies across layers: a Physical Flow Layer (‘engine’), a Policy Boundary Layer (‘rulebook’), and a Data and Calculation Layer (‘nervous system’). Our comparative analysis demonstrates that no single methodology is universally superior; a strategic, hybrid application across the hierarchy is essential. A structured case-based analysis applying the framework to China’s West-East Electricity Transfer corridor demonstrates its practical utility, with illustrative estimates from published comparative analyses suggesting that different accounting choices for cross-border electricity can result in differences of 15%–30% in an importing region’s reported Scope 2 emissions. The review identifies critical challenges data transparency, treatment of electricity imports, and lack of standardization, and proposes actionable pathways. Future research frontiers include dynamic real-time CEFs, artificial intelligence for forecasting and zoning, and blockchain for data integrity. This framework provides an essential blueprint for next-generation grid CEFs indispensable for guiding a precise and efficient energy transition.

John Alexander Taborda, Cesar Enrique Polo Castro, Miguel Martínez

Just energy transitions in the Global South unfold under conditions of institutional fragmentation, fiscal constraints, and high socio-ecological turbulence, making governance capacity a critical bottleneck for effective decarbonization and climate justice. This study proposes the Cybernetic Environmental Hub (CEH) framework, which extends the Viable System Model (VSM) to sustainability governance by integrating AIoT-enabled environmental monitoring, Early Warning Systems, decentralized data governance, and justice-centered institutional design. Methodologically, the article is primarily a conceptual framework paper accompanied by an illustrative single-site qualitative case study designed to probe the plausibility and diagnostic utility of the proposed architecture rather than to generate statistical generalization. The research combines theoretical development with participatory territorial diagnostics in the Caribbean Mining Corridor, where socio-ecological challenges were collected through participatory innovation workshops, thematically coded, and mapped onto the five VSM subsystems to identify systemic “variety gaps.” The analysis indicates that fragmented operational initiatives coexist with weak meta-systemic coordination, limiting adaptive capacity in energy transition processes. The CEH architecture is proposed to address these deficiencies by embedding AIoT sensing, federated learning, blockchain-based coordination, and Early Warning Systems within recursive governance structures and is grounded in a real cyber-physical deployment of around 90 monitoring stations across Albania, La Jagua de Ibirico and Algarrobo. The study also introduces a Territorial Governance Maturity Model (H1–H3) to diagnose systemic learning capacities and transition readiness across technological, institutional, data governance, and justice dimensions. The findings suggest that cybernetic environmental hubs may function as socio-technical infrastructures supporting coordinated, adaptive, and justice-centered energy transitions in the Global South, while comparative empirical evidence remains an agenda for future work.

Mario Mihetec, Goran Stunjek, Goran Krajačić, Gordana Mikulčić Krnjaja

ABSTRACT Suburban areas with dispersed buildings and low heat flux densities present distinct challenges for the decarbonization of heating systems. While district heating is often promoted in dense urban cores, its economic viability in suburban zones remains questionable due to high network costs and thermal losses. This study investigates whether decentralized, household level solutions combining high-temperature air source heat pumps with photovoltaics can outperform centralized district heating in such contexts. Using a case study of four peripheral settlements in Croatia, the research employs a dual-scale techno-economic optimization framework: a mixed-integer linear programming model for district heating and a prosumer-level model for individual heat pump-photovoltaic–battery systems. Three building renovation scenarios (no, partial, and full renovation) are evaluated alongside a mixed-financing scheme involving grants, household equity, and energy service company participation. Results show that decentralized heat pump-photovoltaic–battery systems under full renovation deliver the highest energy savings (75% reduction in household energy costs), the greatest carbon dioxide reduction (2,207 tonnes annually), with a net present value of 1.49 million EUR and an internal rate of return of 7.21%. When external costs of air pollution and carbon are internalized, the economic net present value rises to 68.39 million EUR. The results suggest that, under the assumptions and boundary conditions defined in this study, decentralized renewable heating systems are both technically viable and economically favorable compared to district heating in low-heat-density suburban contexts. This work provides a replicable decision-support framework for policymakers and planners seeking to accelerate the clean heating transition in dispersed residential areas.

Joseph malisaba, Barah Obinna Onyebuchi, Samuel George Onep, Emmanuel Ninsiima

<ns5:p> Background Access to safe drinking water remains a persistent challenge in low-resource settings such as Ishaka Municipality, Uganda, where surface and groundwater sources are frequently contaminated and access to reliable electricity is limited. This study presents the design, modeling, and performance evaluation of a solar-powered hybrid water treatment system integrated with a biosensor-based microbial detection unit, enabling autonomous operation and real-time water quality monitoring for decentralized applications. Methods A total of 384 water samples were collected from springs, wetlands, wells, and tap sources and analyzed for key physicochemical and microbial parameters, including turbidity, pH, and indicator organisms. The proposed system integrates sedimentation, activated carbon filtration, reverse osmosis, and solar thermal disinfection to achieve multi-barrier treatment. Hydraulic and filtration performance were modeled using fluid flow and porous media principles, while microbial inactivation was described using first-order kinetic models. The photovoltaic subsystem was evaluated through detailed loss modeling, incorporating temperature effects, partial shading, and inverter inefficiencies to assess overall system reliability. Results Baseline results indicated significant contamination, with <ns5:italic>Escherichia coli</ns5:italic> concentrations reaching 210 CFU/100 mL and turbidity values up to 146 NTU. The hybrid system achieved over 95% removal of contaminants, complete elimination of <ns5:italic>E. coli</ns5:italic> , and compliance with World Health Organization drinking water standards. Solar thermal disinfection provided a 4–6 log reduction in microbial indicators. The integrated biosensor demonstrated rapid response times (45–90 seconds) and strong correlation with laboratory biochemical oxygen demand measurements (R <ns5:sup>2</ns5:sup> = 0.89–0.94). The photovoltaic subsystem maintained a performance ratio of 0.84–0.88, consistently meeting 100% of operational energy demand under varying environmental conditions. Conclusion These results demonstrate that the proposed system provides an effective, energy-autonomous solution for decentralized water purification with real-time monitoring capability, offering significant potential for improving access to safe drinking water in rural and resource-limited environments. </ns5:p>

Henrietta Ighomrore

Clean energy transitions increasingly depend on the ability of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to access capital on terms that allow them to compete with large, vertically integrated incumbents. At a macro level, clean energy finance has evolved from subsidy-heavy public funding toward blended models combining private capital, risk-sharing instruments, and performance-based incentives. These structures aim to lower the cost of capital, correct market failures, and accelerate diffusion of renewable technologies across national energy systems. However, capital markets continue to privilege scale, balance-sheet strength, and long operating histories, creating persistent financing asymmetries that disadvantage smaller firms. This study situates clean energy financing within broader frameworks of financial inclusion, industrial competitiveness, and energy market liberalization. It examines how innovative financing architectures such as blended finance vehicles, green credit guarantees, pay-as-you-save schemes, revenue-backed project finance, and aggregated procurement platforms reshape risk allocation and margin dynamics. By reducing upfront capital requirements, smoothing cash flows, and improving bankability, these models enable SMEs to price energy products and services competitively while maintaining sustainable margins. Narrowing to the national context, the analysis highlights how policy design, regulatory certainty, and domestic financial infrastructure determine whether financing innovations translate into real competitive parity. Case-informed synthesis shows that when concessional capital is strategically deployed to crowd in commercial lenders, small enterprises can achieve cost structures comparable to larger incumbents, expand market share, and drive decentralized energy adoption. The findings underscore that clean energy competition is not solely a technological challenge, but a financial architecture problem, where well-designed financing models are decisive in leveling margins and unlocking inclusive energy-led growth at national scale under diverse regulatory and macroeconomic conditions globally relevant insights.

Abulfathi Ibrahim Saleh Al-hussaini

Water scarcity represents one of the most critical challenges confronting arid and semi-arid regions, particularly under the intensifying pressures of climate change. In desert environments, limited freshwater availability constrains public health, food security, and socio-economic development, while traditional funding mechanisms often prove inadequate for scaling sustainable water infrastructure. This study examines the potential of decentralized finance (DeFi) bonds, combined with desalination and atmospheric water harvesting technologies, as an innovative financing and delivery model for enhancing water resilience in desert regions. The research adopts a qualitative, exploratory case study approach, drawing on a structured review of academic and policy literature, documented blockchain-based water initiatives, and a conceptual financial analysis of DeFi bond mechanisms. The OikosNomos.world (ONW) initiative is examined as the primary case study, with attention to its proposed deployment of solar-powered desalination systems, boreholes, and atmospheric water harvesting infrastructure. The analysis indicates that existing desalination and water harvesting technologies are technically viable in arid environments, particularly when integrated with renewable energy systems. Furthermore, blockchain-enabled DeFi bonds demonstrate potential to enhance transparency, automate fund allocation through smart contracts, and attract global impact-oriented capital beyond traditional grant-based models. However, the study also identifies key challenges, including regulatory uncertainty, governance complexity, infrastructure constraints, and the need for sustained community engagement. The paper concludes that while DeFi-financed water infrastructure is not a standalone solution to water scarcity, its strategic integration with proven water technologies and inclusive governance models offers a scalable and transparent pathway for strengthening desert resilience. Future empirical research and pilot deployments are required to validate financial performance, adoption outcomes, and long-term socio-environmental impacts.

C.A. Bindyashree, Chitra G., Syed Muzamil Basha, Hamed Taherdoost

In the present times, Transformation finance has become a prominent approach for a systematic financial channel to facilitate the step-by-step decarbonization of carbon-intensive sectors. Such mechanisms rely on the accuracy of carbon emissions data to measure environmental performance and to inform capital decisions. The current carbon accounting methods are limited by inadequate data-collection provisions, slow verification processes, and low auditability, which undermine the reliability of emission-reduction claims and constrain the effectiveness of carbon asset markets. In the present research work, a blockchain-based framework is proposed that will create reliable carbon data accounting and facilitate structured carbon asset circulation within ecosystems of transformation finance. The framework establishes a single carbon lifecycle for data, integrating real-time emission tracking, multi-step verification, a secure registry, and computer-generated assets. The datasets of industrial emissions used to test the operation of the proposed system under multi-sector conditions include energy systems and manufacturing activities, logistics networks, and urban service infrastructure. The objective of the proposed framework is to measure the reliability of carbon accounting by normalizing emission intensities, estimating verification confidence, and scoring trust with uncertainty. In addition, a circulation model is proposed to describe the liquidity of carbon assets, the efficiency of their utilization, and the stability of decentralized transactions. The outcome of the present research is to regulate the creation and transfer of tokenized carbon assets, which guarantees the consistency of environmental performance and financial representation. The review shows a quantifiable increase in the visibility of emission records, a decrease in verification delays, and greater visibility into asset circulation processes compared with traditional centralized systems. The suggested framework establishes a logical link between verifiable carbon-reduction results and decentralized financial mechanisms, enhancing the operational feasibility of transformation finance.

Christian Kaps, Serguei Netessine, Vishrut Rana, Ömer Karaduman

Achieving SDG 7 requires closing persistent energy access gaps while simultaneously scaling renewable generation and reliably integrating intermittent supply into electricity systems. In 2024, 655 million people remain without access to electricity, and about 2 billion still rely on polluting cooking fuels. Simultaneously, clean energy technologies are increasingly cost-competitive and deployment is accelerating. Still, adoption and scaling remain constrained by affordability, supply-chain and infrastructure bottlenecks, coordination failures among decentralized actors, financing, and institutional frictions. We highlight the grand challenges behind these operational frictions and discuss how the operations management research community can contribute to the progress towards SDG 7 targets.

Phemelo Tamasiga, Valentine Munyaradzi Dzingai, Helen Onyeaka, Rose Daphnee Tchonkouang · 7 authors

• The global energy transition impacts food security in developing countries. Renewable energy improves agricultural productivity but creates trade-offs like land and water competition. • Agri-voltaic systems enhance crop yields and energy efficiency. They help balance food and energy production, reducing fossil fuel dependency. • Renewable energy projects can increase food prices in vulnerable regions. Financial incentives, social protection, education, and public-private partnerships to make renewable energy adoption more accessible and affordable for farmers. • Renewable energy can reduce agriculture’s operational costs but high initial investments limit smallholder farmers. The study recommends subsidies, training, and financial support to help farmers adopt renewable energy while ensuring food security is maintained. • There is an eminent need for an interdisciplinary approach to understanding energy transitions’ impacts on food security and long-term sustainability. Transitioning to net-zero societies affects how energy is produced and consumed, with consequences for food security. Through a systematic review of 43 peer-reviewed studies that follow the PRISMA protocol, results reveal that renewable energy can enhance agricultural productivity by reducing operational costs, increasing efficiency in irrigation and processing, and providing reliable access to energy. However, challenges exist, including competition for land and water resources between renewable energy projects and food production, high upfront costs of clean energy technologies, limited access to credit facilities, and institutional bottlenecks. To overcome these challenges, recommended policies include offering subsidies and financial incentives to make clean energy more affordable for farmers, as well as providing education and training to support the adoption of sustainable practices. Furthermore, promoting collaboration between the public and private sectors is crucial to stimulate investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Moreover, these policies must be designed for specific national circumstances. High-income or upper-middle-income countries can deploy capital-intensive agrivoltaic and biogas technologies via concessional finance. In contrast, low-income settings should prioritize low-cost, decentralized solar pumps and off-grid dryers to build farmer confidence and trust. Countries with stronger regulatory frameworks and secure land tenure systems are better equipped to support large-scale renewable energy projects. At the same time, regions with weaker governance tend to benefit most from community-owned mini-grids. The mapping of policy options onto economic, institutional, and agro-ecological dimensions provides a nuanced, context-sensitive framework to guide equitable and effective energy transitions in diverse agricultural landscapes.

Abdoul Wahab Nouhou Moussa, Adel Zrelli, Boukary Sawadogo, Rachida Chemini

Africa’s growing water stress and energy access challenges necessitate sustainable wastewater treatment solutions. This review critically examines three emerging approaches: solar-based, membrane-based, and hybrid solar-membrane systems, across the African continent. Solar technologies, including solar water disinfection, photocatalysis, and advanced oxidation processes, demonstrate significant potential in sun-rich regions, achieving more than 90% pathogen and contaminant removal in decentralized settings. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and advanced filtration systems show robust performance in industrial applications, with 95%–99% pollutant rejection, though their energy demands remain a significant constraint. Hybrid solar-membrane systems synergize these advantages, as evidenced by case studies in Kenya (solar-MBR for aquaculture, 40% energy autonomy) and Namibia (solar-powered desalination, 99.7% salt rejection). Despite technological promise, adoption barriers persist, including high capital costs, technical capacity gaps, and policy fragmentation. This review analyze 32 implementations across 17 African countries, evaluating performance metrics, scalability, and socioeconomic viability. Key findings highlight the cost-effectiveness and sustainability gains from waste-derived membranes (e.g., geopolymers, recycled plastics, oasis waste), nanoparticle-enhanced photocatalysts (TiO 2 /MnO 2 ), and modular system designs tailored to off-grid and resource-limited settings. The review concludes with policy recommendations to accelerate deployment. These include fostering decentralized systems in peri-urban and rural areas, promoting public-private partnerships to finance infrastructure, and supporting localized research to adapt technologies to diverse hydroclimatic and socio-economic conditions. Together, these approaches offer a viable pathway toward achieving SDG 6 and SDG 7 in Africa.

M. S. Khan, Akram A. Khan

This paper examines the role of advanced biofuels in promoting energy access and economic growth in rural areas, with a focus on developing countries. Advanced biofuels, produced from non-food biomass sources such as agricultural residues, algae, and waste, have the potential to reduce rural energy poverty while creating economic opportunities. Through case studies of successful initiatives in countries like India and Brazil, this study highlights how decentralized biofuel production has improved energy access, created local employment, and enhanced agricultural value chains. Notable findings include the establishment of community-led biofuel plants that reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels and generated sustainable incomes for farmers by utilizing crop residues. The study also identifies key challenges such as limited infrastructure, access to financing, and policy support, while offering actionable recommendations to scale advanced biofuel adoption. Overall, advanced biofuels present a promising pathway to sustainable rural development by enhancing energy security, reducing environmental impact, and fostering economic growth.

Meserecordias Wilfred Lema

This review paper aims to examine the key challenges associated with wastewater management in major cities of the East African region and explore the emerging opportunities for addressing this crisis. An extensive database search identified 100 peer-reviewed publications related to wastewater crisis in East Africa. The reviewed literature was analysed and synthesized to develop an understanding of the topic. The findings from this review have shown that less than 55% of the East African population (30% in Tanzania, 40% in Uganda, 50% in Kenya, 40% in Rwanda, 20% in Burundi, 30% in Ethiopia, 50% in Sudan, and 15% in Somalia) is connected to sewers systems. Additionally, the study has revealed the following issues as the main challenges facing wastewater management in East Africa; poor infrastructure, regulatory and institutional deficiencies, poor financing and cost recovery mechanism, and poor community participation and utility management, which in turn results to potential environmental and public health implications. This paper has also identified possible innovative strategies and emerging opportunities for sustainable wastewater management. These include; decentralized wastewater treatment systems, resource recovery and reuse, public–private partnerships, policy and governance reforms and the use of modern technologies such as membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and electrochemical treatment methods. In addition, the role of policy and governance reforms in enabling sustainable wastewater management in East Africa has also been emphasized, in this paper. The findings of this review emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive policies, investments, and collaborative efforts to address the wastewater crisis and harness the potential benefits of wastewater as a resource.

Safitri, Icmi Alif, Sulaiman, Muhammad, Budiarto, Rachmawan

The development of micro-scale renewable energy power generation systems, such as micro-hydropower (MHP), often needs more consideration for sustainability during the planning stages. Many small-scale renewable energy systems have shorter-than-expected lifespans, jeopardizing Indonesia's Net Zero Emission Target for 2060 or earlier. Despite this, only some studies have examined the long-term viability of installed renewable energy generation projects, particularly MHP plants not managed by state-owned companies or PLN (Pembangkit Listrik Negara). The primary objectives of this research are to evaluate the feasibility of retrofitting and assess the potential sustainability of a decommissioned MHP in Banjarnegara, Central Java. A cash flow analysis was performed to assess techno-economic indicators. Additionally, the social-institutional dimension was analyzed through in-depth interviews with 15 stakeholders. Sustainability was evaluated using a framework of 15 indicators across technical, economic, environmental, social, and institutional dimensions. The findings revealed that among the four sustainability aspects, the social-institutional dimension scored the lowest potential sustainability at 26.67%. In contrast, the technical and environmental dimensions showed higher potential sustainability, scoring 83.7% and 87.5%, respectively. The economic dimension was deemed feasible only when the financing model accounted solely for retrofitting costs. It is crucial to consider all dimensions comprehensively. Furthermore, engaging multiple stakeholders and fostering local community awareness is vital to ensure the long-term sustainability of decentralized energy systems. This study enhances the understanding of the sustainability potential of abandoned decentralized energy systems and explores how reusing abandoned MHP facilities can support stakeholders in revitalization efforts, contributing to an increased share of renewable energy in the overall energy mix.

Mohamd Laimon, Rula Almadadha

No abstract is available for this record.

Maria Pérez Rubí, Conrad Schiffmann, Jochen Hack

In Costa Rica, water supply networks provide water to over 94% of the country's population. However, only an estimated 14% of wastewater receives proper treatment. The lack of centralized sanitation infrastructure has resulted in the use of septic tanks and the discharge of untreated greywater into rivers, causing environmental degradation of surface waters. Retrofitting conventional centralized sewer networks and treatment plants into the existing urbanization presents extensive social, economic, and technical challenges. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for greywater treatment can reduce pollutant loads and improve the environmental status of water resources and represent an opportunity for technical leapfrogging towards sustainable, decentralized on-site treatment and reuse. However, the implementation of NbS in urban areas poses significant challenges due to the complex interplay of social, regulatory, and economic factors. Specifically, for on-site greywater treatment systems, meeting several criteria, including efficient pollutant removal, affordability, and public acceptance is essential for successful implementation and operation. This study assesses the technical, socio-economic, and political-regulatory dimensions relevant to implementing NbS for decentralized greywater treatment. To conduct this research, a Real-World Lab was established in the Great Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica, employing a transdisciplinary approach. This approach provided a physical space and societal context to integrate site-specific aspects and understand the various factors that influence the implementation and upscaling of NbS. As part of our methodology, we analyzed the water quality parameters and treatment performance of a NbS prototype for decentralized greywater treatment. Within the Real-World Lab framework, we conducted interviews, surveys, and field observations to investigate socio-economic and political-regulatory aspects. Our results highlight the technical potential of the NbS prototype. However, the limitation lies in the governance scheme and financing mechanisms required for upscaling the NbS as a decentralized on-site technology across the country. Our multidimensional assessment provides insights into the requirements for widespread implementation of NbS, applicable to other regions facing similar retrofitting sanitation challenges.

Pengfei Zhao, Shuangqi Li, Paul Jen‐Hwa Hu, Chenghong Gu · 9 authors

Water resources are vital to the energy conversion process but few efforts have been devoted to the joint optimization problem which is fundamentally critical to the water-energy nexus for small-scale or remote energy systems (e.g., energy hubs). Traditional water and energy trading mechanisms depend on centralized authorities and cannot preserve security and privacy effectively. Also, their transaction process cannot be verified and is subject to easy tampering and frequent exposures to cyberattacks, forgery, and network failures. Toward that end, water-energy hubs (WEHs) offers a promising way to analyse water-energy nexus for greater resource utilization efficiency. We propose a two-stage blockchain-based transactive management method for multiple, interconnected WEHs. Our method considers peer-to-peer (P2P) trading and demand response, and leverages blockchain to create a secure trading environment. It features auditing and resource transaction record management via system aggregators enabled by a consortium blockchain, and entails spatial-temporal distributionally robust optimization (DRO) for renewable generation and load uncertainties. A spatial-temporal ambiguity set is incorporated in DRO to characterize the spatial-temporal dependencies of the uncertainties in distributed renewable generation and load demand. We conduct a simulation-based evaluation that includes robust optimization and the moment-based DRO as benchmarks. The results reveal that our method is consistently more effective than both benchmarks. Key findings include i) our method reduces conservativeness with lower WEH trading and operation costs, and achieves important performance improvements by up to 6.1%; and ii) our method is efficient and requires 18.7% less computational time than the moment-based DRO. Overall, this study contributes to the extant literature by proposing a novel two-stage blockchain-based WEH transaction method, developing a realistic spatial-temporal ambiguity set to effectively hedge against the uncertainties for distributed renewable generation and load demand, and producing empirical evidence suggesting its greater effectiveness and values than several prevalent methods.

Kenji Otsuka

Abstract The last decade has witnessed several events that had a serious impact on people’s attitudes toward environmental sustainability regionally and globally. This chapter depicts how transboundary cooperative initiatives by states and nonstate actors tackle transboundary air pollution and climate change in East Asia. It also examines the opportunities and challenges we face in the very recent landscape shift toward carbon neutrality and the deepening concerns for climate emergencies. Multilateral cooperative institutions in East Asia have focused on the monitoring of air pollutants and information sharing of related policies and measures among member countries. It should also be noted that there are some transboundary coalitions of independent scholars and research-type NGOs in Northeast Asia who conduct joint research on the decarbonization of energy systems and disseminate up-to-date knowledge and information on decentralized nature-based renewable energy. For further development of transboundary cooperation in East Asia, opportunities exist as an increasing potential for multilateral policy dialogue beyond the borders and broadening partnerships for local and transboundary coalitions with global alliances on the one hand; and challenges in just and safe transition, decarbonization of overseas financing, and seeking energy resilience on the other.

Kankam O. Adu-Kankam, Luís M. Camarinha-Matos

The rapid proliferation of renewable energy communities/ecosystems is an indication of their potential contribution to the ongoing energy transition. A common characteristic of these ecosystems is their complex composition, which often involves the interaction of multiple actors. Currently, the notions of "networking", "collaboration", "coordination", and "cooperation", although having different meanings, are often loosely used to describe these interactions, which creates a sense of ambiguity and confusion. To better characterize the nature of interactions in current and emerging ecosystems, this article uses the systematic literature review method to analyse 34 emerging cases. The objective is threefold (a) to study the interactions and engagements between the involved actors, aiming at identifying elements of collaboration. (b) Identify the adopted technological enablers, and (c) ascertain how the composition and functions of these ecosystems compare to virtual power plants. The outcome revealed that the interactions between the members of these ecosystems can be described as cooperation and not necessarily as collaboration, except in a few cases. Regarding technological enablers, a vast panoply of technologies, such as IoT devices, smart meters, intelligent software agents, peer-to-peer networks, distributed ledger systems/blockchain technology (including smart contracts, blockchain as a platform service, and cryptocurrencies) were found. In comparison with virtual power plants, these ecosystems have similar composition, thus, having multiple actors, comprised of decentralized and heterogeneous technologies, and are formed by aggregating various distributed energy resources. They are also supported by ICT and are characterized by the simultaneous flow of information and energy.

Hannah Abdullah, Karim Elgendy, Hanne Knaepen

Cities in the Middle East and North Africa are already suffering the effects of climate change. Weak urban regulation, ineffective climate policies, limited decentralization and insufficient empowerment of local authorities and civil society further decrease urban resilience. Future climate scenarios and projected urban growth threaten the stability of the region; with potential negative knock-on effects on Europe. This CASCADES Spotlight Study examines climate vulnerabilities in urban areas in countries to the south of the EU and the wider Middle East and North Africa region and advocates for systemic approaches to addressing urban climate resilience by strengthening the water-energy-food nexus, as well as other enabling factors such as decentralization. It concludes with recommendations on how the European Green Deal can help cities in the region adapt to climate impacts, based on a water-energy-food nexus approach. Over the past two decades, the European Commission has stepped up its support for urban climate action and resilience. An increasing number of programmes financed under the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) South have addressed urban climate resilience in response to the region’s rapid urbanization and the high climate vulnerability of cities. The number of urban dwellers in the wider Middle East and North Africa region is estimated to reach 527 million in 2050, an increase of 72% compared to 2020. At the same time, climate impacts – including both slow onset changes and sudden disasters – are putting additional stress on urban infrastructure. This stress is aggravated by weak urban regulations that have created unsustainable development trends which undermine the potential benefits of urbanization and adversely affect urban climate resilience. The prevalence of highly centralized administrative systems and incomplete decentralization reforms hamper local capacity building and decision-making, which are prerequisites for effective adaptation and resilience. At the same time, climate impacts – including both slow onset changes and sudden disasters – are putting additional stress on urban infrastructure. This stress is aggravated by weak urban regulations that have created unsustainable development trends which undermine the potential benefits of urbanization and adversely affect urban climate resilience. The prevalence of highly centralized administrative systems and incomplete decentralization reforms hamper local capacity building and decision-making, which are prerequisites for effective adaptation and resilience. The convergence of the region’s harsh climatic conditions with rapid, unsustainable urbanization and the associated socio-economic burdens can exacerbate existing political instability, conflict-induced migration and poverty. These developments could cascade into the EU, altering security, trade and diplomatic relations with the Southern Neighbourhood. The EU’s evolving approach to working with local authorities on urban infrastructure and climate governance is a first step towards addressing the region’s intertwined urban and climate crises. However, this approach is still in the early stages and there is a need to reflect on lessons learned and how urban spaces, climates and governance are evolving in the region. This study suggests that the EU’s overwhelming focus on supporting cities in the region with energy efficiency and the transition to sustainable energy systems is not enough to strengthen urban climate resilience. In cities of the Southern Neighbourhood, which typically struggle with resource management and scarcity, climate resilience will increasingly depend on local capacities to formulate and implement nexus approaches, especially in the water, energy and food sectors. Based on case studies of three small and intermediary urban areas, the study advocates for a systemic approach to addressing urban climate resilience in Southern Neighbourhood cities. Considering the established effectiveness of applying a water-energy-food nexus approach to improving climate resilience, the paper stresses the need for local governments to explore nexus opportunities between the water, energy and food sectors in order to achieve resilient and sustainable urbanism, while also highlighting other enabling factors such as decentralization. It concludes by exploring how future external action around the European Green Deal and its ambitions for systemic transformation could benefit from stepping up cooperation with cities in the Southern Neighbourhood around the water-energy-food nexus.

Giulia Cipolletta, E. Gözde Özbayram, Anna Laura Eusebi, Çağrı Akyol · 7 authors

Water supply and reuse through non-conventional water resources can significantly decrease the stress on natural water resources. Decentralized systems can help not only to alleviate issues of water security in arid areas, but also to create a sustainable framework within a circular economy. Although these small-scale innovative technologies are able to achieve ready-to-use, high quality of recovered/treated water on-site, the loop cannot be closed in most cases due to legislative barriers. Similarly, the end-use of sewage sludge after treatment in decentralized systems still lacks specific regulations that limit its valorization. This work analyzes the current policy and legislations related to water supply, wastewater treatment, water reuse and resource valorization within the context of decentralized state-of-the-art technologies applied in rural areas. The drawbacks in the current EU legislation that set barriers to close water-related loops in European countries are highlighted. A regulatory fitness check was applied to each type of loop to identify the key factors to accomplish the legislative compliance, and financing pathways were further evaluated at the EU level. As a possible solution, further development of an innovation deal approach is recommended to address the environmental, regulatory and financial gaps in water management through an integrated framework, providing ad-hoc policies and prescriptions for sustainable reuse of all water resources.

Varun Gaur

The majority of rural Indian households remain dependent on traditional, inefficient and harmful household energy technologies. Rural households make their energy decisions with respect to the Water-Energy-Food security (WEF) Nexus jointly, however, previous research initiatives have analyzed household energy access problem in isolation. Taking this WEF nexus into account, this thesis investigates factors influencing household energy transition and identifies an optimal village energy system (VES) for the rural communities in Uttar Pradesh, India. The thesis also analyzes the distributional impacts of VES on different categories of rural households.&lt;br /&gt; Using detailed household survey data, Logit and Zoib (zero one inflated beta) regression techniques were applied to analyze household's activities and to identify factors influencing household energy transition. The results showed that regular non-agricultural income of household's male member increases the probability of household's modern cooking energy and modern lighting transition by 8.6% and 13.6%, respectively. It was found that household's higher agricultural dependence and resource endowments (more labor and cattle) lead to higher share of traditional bioenergy consumption in the total cooking energy mix. Proximity to markets and high household income were observed to positively influence household modern cooking and lighting transition. Local institutions such as local bio-energy markets and barter trade for labor- bioenergy were observed to have significant influence on household energy choice. Results also showed that government's policy instrument such as household connection to government LPG scheme is associated with 20.5% increased probability of household using modern cooking energy as its primary cooking fuel. Results also indicated that social factors such as higher female education and young age of household head are associated with household's increased modern cooking energy consumption in its total cooking energy mix.&lt;br /&gt; The thesis utilized linear optimization technique to formulate a village energy model in GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling Software). The model identified an optimal Village Energy System (VES) considering all possible energy sources and technologies (energy systems) as well as their linkages with food security. Results confirmed energy systems interdependencies for the rural communities. For instance, results showed that the levelized cost of electricity generation from biomass gasifier power system is 2.54 INR/ MJ as compared to 2.89 INR/ MJ from grid electricity-battery based power system. However, model selected the latter for fulfilling village's night time power needs while it assigned higher shadow price of 0.143 INR / MJ to the former. This happened because possible utilization of gasifier power system was expected to create scarcities of local bio-energy resources, resulting in costlier cooking energy system for the village. It was found that DES (Decentralized Energy System) provides demand side energy management opportunities with different energy prices at different timings of the day. Results also showed that high cost of finance deters possible adoption of renewable power technologies, such as solar power.&lt;br /&gt; Lastly, the thesis constructed an agricultural household model linked with VES to analyze VES's welfare consequences on rich and poor households. Here, household had the opportunity to purchase VES's energy services and sell its bio-energy feedstocks to VES. For the poor household, this interaction with VES led to its increased agricultural production with around 22% increase in its farm area cultivation in summers, as well as led to reduction in its off-farm labor by around 11% which is then utilized in its own agriculture. Overall, this interaction resulted in around 4% increase in poor household's annual income. On the down side, this interaction led to poor household shifting towards dirtier cooking energy technologies, resulting in increased external costs and CO2 emissions by around 27% and 45%, respectively. On the other hand, VES did not impact rich household's food production and only marginally increased its economic gain. However, it led to rich household shifting towards cleaner cooking energy thereby resulting in reduction of its external costs almost by half.

Akhtar Saira, Ahmad Shabbir, Huifang Wu, Shahbaz Aroosa · 7 authors

In the irrigated agricultural areas of Pakistan, the major sources of irrigation are canal water and groundwater. Due to the scarcity of canal water the dependency on groundwater is rapidly increasing in many areas of Pakistan. The groundwater is not only expensive, inadequate, and non-affordable for the small farmers but also of inferior quality. Much of the wastewater which is produced in urban and peri-urban areas is directly or indirectly used for irrigation without any kind of treatment. It appears that suitable technologies for decentralized treatment are avoided but other barriers to the wide adoption of the decentralized approach also exists. These barriers include lack of finance and suitable land, devoid of knowledge and skills and a lack of flexibility in official design standards. This study is an effort to check the status of treatment of the wastewater generated in Faisalabad: The area irrigated with wastewater in and around Faisalabad, quality of wastewater used to grow crops in wastewater irrigated areas, types of crops grown with wastewater, mechanism and composition of wastewater used and supplied to the farmers and farmer&rsquo;s perception about the social and adverse impacts on human health and constraints in wastewater irrigation. To reduce these barriers several opportunities for improving wastewater management are to be considered via improved policies, institutional dialogues and financial mechanisms, which would reduce the risks in food chain contamination in agriculture practices. Effluent standards combined with incentives or enforcement can motivate improvements in water management by household and industrial sectors discharging wastewater from point sources. Segregation of chemical pollutants from urban wastewater facilitates treatment and reduces risk. Strengthening institutional capacity and establishing links between water delivery and sanitation sectors through inter-institutional coordination leads to more efficient management of wastewater and risk reduction. &nbsp; Key words: Wastewater irrigation, wastewater implication, constraints, farmer &lsquo;perception, food chain contamination.

Yu‐Pin Lin, Joy R. Petway, Wan-Yu Lien, Josef Settele

Assessments may underestimate the annual global water scarcity, driven by seasonal water availability and consumption distribution heterogeneity[...]

Débora Ley

Decentralized renewable energy (DRE) projects have the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, and sustainable development objectives. DRE systems are considered for emissions reduction or poverty alleviation purposes while their role for climate change adaptation has hardly been analysed. In terms of adaptation, DRE provides electricity that can be used both to prepare for and recover from disasters, and to provide additional income and livelihood opportunities, thus reducing dependency on natural resources. For example, DRE can power early warning systems, telecommunication systems, health clinics and potable water systems. Although it might be said that climate change adaptation applications of DRE systems have already been implemented, the vulnerability of these systems towards climate impacts, and the robustness of these systems to climatic impacts are oftentimes not even considered. The assessment of 15 community-owned renewable energy projects in Guatemala and Nicaragua show that, under certain conditions, renewable energy projects can simultaneously meet the triple objective of sustainable development and climate change mitigation and adaptation. Research also points to specific drivers which can facilitate or hinder projects meeting their own stated objectives and, consequently, the triple objective, and their long-term functioning. These drivers include the specific background of the beneficiary community, the financing and implementing entities and the local governance structures in place.