E. A. Titenko, E. A. Schilenkov, S. N. Frolov, V. P. Soglaev · 6 authors
The purpose of the research is to find ways to increase the efficiency of the nanosatellite constellation (network) in the conditions of replenishment and retirement of spacecraft during operation in orbit based on a self-organizing mesh network, in which routing is carried out dynamically based on the connectivity of network elements. Methods are based on decision-making techniques, systems analysis, and decentralized control principles, enabling a nanosatellite network to independently reconfigure itself to meet changing operating conditions and task requirements. Using the properties of self-organization and adaptive control methods (distribution and responsiveness to change), the nanosatellite constellation maintains a configuration of satellites capable of exchanging data and service information. A two-level network reconfiguration method has been developed, enabling proactive changes to the composition of nanosatellites based on historical assessments of the quality and strength of transmitted signals. Algorithms for route list generation and route analysis have been developed, which can be executed autonomously on each nanosatellite in the constellation. Results . The developed reconfiguration method enables asynchronous addition and deletion of satellites from the network based on received or discovered information about their status and connections between satellites. It is shown that the decentralized approach has linear time complexity for the most critical algorithms for updating and constructing network routes. Conclusion . The developed reconfiguration method and algorithms for managing a nanosatellite constellation form the basis for developing network software that allows each satellite to autonomously make decisions about modifying its status and route list.
L Blanco, Cristian J. Vaca-Rubio, Jorge Baranda, Farhana Javed · 40 authors
UNITY-6G introduces a AI-natively framework that unifies terrestrial (TN), non-terrestrial (NTN), and non-public networks (NPN), treating connectivity, computing, and intelligence as interdependent resources. The architecture utilizes an Inter-Domain Management Orchestrator (IDMO) based on Service-Based Management Architecture (SBMA) principles to coordinate services across heterogeneous domains. A core pillar of the framework is its AI-native design through autonomous agentic AI workflows following a standardized MS–AE–DE–ACT (Monitoring, Analytics, Decision, and Actuation) logical patterns. To enhance resource efficiency and sustainability, the architecture integrates Digital Twins (DT) for proactive system modeling and semantic communications to prioritize task-relevant information transfer. Security is addressed through a Trust Architecture leveraging Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) for cross-domain auditability. The framework's utility is validated through proof-of-concepts targeting sustainable disaster handling, immersive XR/holographic communications, and time-sensitive services for Industry 4.0. The presented advances establish a foundation for the continuous development of high-performance, autonomous 6G systems.
Saha Reno, Mohammad Jishan Ahmad Shipu, Sumaiya Hussain Tanha, Mohammad Molla Habib
ABSTRACT Securing satellite data transactions is critical as satellite communication supports global connectivity, navigation, earth observation and aviation. Sensitive inter‐satellite data requires robust protection, and aircraft‐ground station links must prevent hazards. Vulnerabilities could breach security protocols, compromising confidentiality and incurring legal consequences. This paper presents the first integration of proof‐of‐authority (PoA) consensus, ERC1155 multi‐token standard and threshold cryptography for satellite data transactions. Unlike prior blockchain‐based proposals that rely on single‐key encryption or energy‐intensive proof‐of‐work (PoW), our system (i) uses ERC1155 to batch different data types in one contract (reducing gas costs by 40%), (ii) distributes private keys via Shamir's secret sharing (k‐of‐n) to eliminate single points of failure and (iii) implements dynamic share rotation during orbital handovers (98% success). Simulations show 12.5 ms average latency, 50 messages/second throughput and 40% lower gas costs versus PoW systems (0.0006 ETH/message). Threshold cryptography increases cracking complexity to operations, while PoA, under our simulation assumptions, achieves 100% detection of man‐in‐the‐middle attacks and 0% success for reentrancy/Sybil attacks. Dynamic share recovery during orbital handovers attains 98% success, outperforming traditional methods in resilience and efficiency.
The emerging Web3 has great potential to provide worldwide decentralized services powered by global-range data-driven networks in the future. To ensure the security of Web3 services among diverse user entities, a decentralized identity (DID) system is essential. Especially, a user's access request to Web3 services can be treated as a DID transaction within the blockchain, executed through a consensus mechanism. However, a critical implementation issue arises in the current Web3, i.e., how to deploy network nodes to serve users on a global scale. To address this issue, emerging Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite communication systems, such as Starlink, offer a promising solution. With their global coverage and high reliability, these communication satellites can complement terrestrial networks as Web3 deployment infrastructures. In this case, this paper develops three hybrid satellite-ground modes to deploy the blockchain-enabled DID system for Web3 users. Three modes integrate ground nodes and satellites to provide flexible and continuous DID services for worldwide users. Meanwhile, to evaluate the effectiveness of the present hybrid deployment modes, we analyze the complete DID consensus performance of blockchain on three hybrid satellite-ground modes. Moreover, we conduct numerical and simulation experiments to verify the effectiveness of three hybrid satellite-ground modes. The impacts of various system parameters are thoroughly analyzed, providing valuable insights for implementing the worldwide Web3 DID system in real-world network environments.
This study, conducted in 2024, explores the potential of blockchain technology to enhance data integrity in space communications and operations. With the growing complexity and reliance on satellite networks for global connectivity, Earth observation, and deep space exploration, ensuring tamper-proof and secure communication is critical. The research proposes a blockchain-based framework that integrates satellites, ground stations, and spacecraft as decentralized nodes, addressing existing security challenges such as data tampering, unauthorized access, and signal jamming. Based consensus combining Proof of Stake (PoS) algorithm with Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) processes is introduced to optimize security and latency in space environments. The feasibility of the framework is evaluated through simulations and case studies, demonstrating its effectiveness in mitigating space-specific threats, with practical implications for missions such as NASA's Artemis program. The study concludes that blockchain offers a transformative solution for securing space communications and urges stakeholders to pilot such technologies for future space operations.
Satellite communication systems (SatCom) is a brand-new network that uses artificial Earth satellites as relay stations to provide communication services such as broadband Internet access to various users on land, sea, air and in space. It features wide coverage, relatively high transmission rates and strong anti-interference capabilities. Security authentication is of crucial significance for the stable operation and widespread application of satellite communication systems. It can effectively prevent unauthorized access, ensuring that only users and devices that pass security authentication can access the satellite network. It also ensures the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data during transmission and storage, preventing data from being stolen, tampered with, or damaged. By means of literature research and comparative analysis, this paper carries out on a comprehensive survey towards the security authentication methods used by SatCom. This paper first summarizes the existing SatCom authentication methods as five categories, namely, those based on cryptography, Blockchain, satellite orbital information, the AKA protocol and physical hardware respectively. Subsequently, a comprehensive comparative analysis is carried out on the above-mentioned five categories of security authentication methods from four dimensions, i.e., security, implementation difficulty and cost, applicable scenarios and real-time performance, and the final comparison results are following obtained. Finally, prospects are made for several important future research directions of security authentication methods for SatCom, laying a well foundation for further carrying on the related research works.
This paper tackles a low earth satellite governance paradox beyond the Kármán Line (100 kilometers above sea level): the same proprietary AI that keeps satellites safe also hides the reasoning states need to supervise private actors and assign responsibility. AI black-box compliance is now routine—operators disclose maneuvers but not the internal signals, thresholds, or telemetry transformations—leaving due regard, peaceful-use expectations, and fault analysis to operate on conjecture rather than evidence. The result is an accountability gap across core space-law instruments: Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty presumes continuing supervision; the Liability Convention relies on reconstructable causation; the LTS Guidelines anticipate demonstrable prevention measures. Terrestrial approaches offer partial assistance. The EU’s qualified transparency and the U.S. post-incident auditing travel unevenly off-Earth, and neither framework reliably reaches proprietary on-orbit autonomy. This paper shows with concrete operational scenarios (e.g., dynamic conjunction-thresholding, autonomous servicing approaches), provides an inevitable loss of public-law legitimacy and lack of protection for intellectual property. To address this, the paper proposes a dual-layer disclosure regime that protects legitimate trade secrets while restoring verifiable oversight. Layer 1—Regulatory Safe Rooms: accredited neutral venues conduct confidential code/model/telemetry review under treaty-backed non-disclosure, enabling certification, adversarial stress-testing, and forensic replay without commercial expropriation. Layer 2—Explainability Without Exposure: operators supply functional evidence—validated performance envelopes, adversarial test outcomes, decision bounds—augmented by privacy-preserving attestations (e.g., zero-knowledge proofs) in lieu of source disclosure. Implementation follows a “pressure-valve” path: condition launch licensing, frequency assignments, and mission approvals on participation now; seek UNCOPUOS endorsement later through a model protocol that harmonizes Artemis practices with non-signatories and codifies a TRIPS-compatible IP-Transparency Equilibrium Clause. The payoff is pragmatic rather than utopian: traceability sufficient to make due regard and liability doctrines workable again; incentives preserved for R&D; and a template that can translate to other thin-sovereignty domains (deep-sea, Antarctic, high-altitude autonomy) where algorithmic opacity currently outruns public law.
Recent revolutionary advancements in the services as observed with the use cases of Industry 5.0, consumer electronics 2.0/smart devices 2.0, digital healthcare ecosystem, Internet-of-Things (IoT), advanced digital finance/currency, and Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) expansion, to name a few, have resulted in a spectacular growth in the number of wireless-connected devices. Subsequently, this has drastically increased the demands for network capacity, channel capacity, reliability, privacy, and security provisions. Despite that, the 5 th Generation (5G) of wireless communication networks has introduced various innovative services such as Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLCs), Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTCs), and Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB). These services only support isolated operations and the requisite reliable service delivery remains a challenge. The Beyond 5G (B5G)/6 th Generation (6G) wireless networks aim at simultaneously providing multiple integrated services through intelligent network operations with ultra-high speed and reliability supporting integrated NTN and terrestrial networks. However, the prospect of such an extensively connected decentralized 3D wireless network also foresees security concerns, underscoring the necessity for seamless and infrastructurefree (decentralized) security solutions. The conventional security mechanisms are considered inadequate to ensure the security provisions of such extensive, decentralized, and heterogeneous networks. Physical Layer Security (PLS) is a promising technique to extend seamless and infrastructure-less security solutions, ensuring the availability, confidentiality, and integrity of legitimate transmissions. This paper provides a comprehensive overview with tutorials and presents the state-of-the-art of PLS, focusing mainly on NTN wireless communications. Furthermore, current research challenges, open issues, and future research directions are also thoroughly discussed in an amalgamation of various emerging 6G technologies. Finally, we provide an overview of implementation challenges in NTN and potential solutions to support the standardization progression of NTN in upcoming releases of 3 rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
Hussein Ibrahim, Marwa A. Shouman, Nawal El‐Fishawy, Ayman Ahmed
Abstract Satellite swarm networks have occupied a prominent position in many modern applications due to their low cost, simplicity of design, and flexibility. Reliability is an influential factor in the design of satellite networks with different structures. Usually, small satellites are based on COST components, which may reduce continues operability due to the lack of using backup system on board the sagecraft. Any failure in one subsystem means a complete loss of the function and data stored in this subsystem; hence the need for a reliable and applicable solution for this matter is a crucial topic. Using the redundancy strategy in satellite swarm networks increases reliability and availability. Blockchain is characterized by using a distributed ledger which enables the database to be replicated across nodes in the network and results in increasing transparency, security, and trust. This paper suggests adoption of blockchain technology in distributed multi-satellite mission swarm networks to provide a high level of reliability and availability of the entire system; the blockchain is usually used to secure system transactions in multilayer approach by storage of the key parameters in more than one node; here we suggest the adoption of this approach not only to secure satellite network transaction, but also to increase system reliability so that failure of one node can be recovered by other nodes. We compared this approach with similar traditional networks that do not use blockchain. The results show a higher reliability efficiency of 95.3% for applying blockchain technology compared to 64.3% without the use of blockchain, as well as a higher availability of 99% compared to 91%.
In this paper, we present a decentralized network protocol, Space Network Protocol, based on Communication Satellite Services. The protocol outlines a method for distributing information about the status of satellite communication services across the entire blockchain network, facilitating fairness and transparency in all communication services. Our primary objective is to standardize the services delivered by all satellite networks under the communication satellite protocol. This standard remains intact regardless of potential unreliability associated with the satellites or the terminal hardware. We proposed PoD (Proof of Distribution) to verify if the communication satellites are online and PoF (Proof of Flow) to authenticate the actual data flow provided by the communication satellites. In addition, we also proposed PoM (Proof of Mesh) to verify if the communication satellites have successfully meshed together. Utilizing zero-knowledge proof and multi-party cryptographic computations, we can evaluate the service provisioning parameters of each satellite, even in the presence of potential terminal or network node fraud. This method offers technical support for the modeling of distributed network services.
Haotian Deng, Tao Liu, Xiaochen Ma, Weijie Wang · 7 authors
The space-air-ground integrated networks (SAGINs) are pivotal for modern communication and surveillance, with a growing number of connected devices. The proliferation of IoT devices within these networks introduces new risks due to potential erroneous synergistic interactions that could compromise system integrity and security. This paper addresses the challenges in coordination, synchronization, and security within SAGINs by introducing a novel static program analysis (SPA) technique using zero-knowledge (ZK) proofs. This approach ensures the detection of risky interactions without compromising sensitive source code, thus safeguarding intellectual property and privacy. The proposed method overcomes the incompatibility between SPA and ZK systems by developing an imperative programming language for SAGINs and a specialized abstract domain for interaction threats. The system translates network control algorithms into arithmetic circuits suitable for ZK analysis, maintaining high accuracy in detecting risks. Evaluations of real-world scenarios demonstrate the system’s efficacy in identifying risky interactions with minimal computational overhead. This research presents the first ZK-based SPA scheme for SAGINs, enhancing security and confidentiality in network analysis while adhering to privacy regulations.
Operators of low-Earth-orbit (LEO) non-geostationary satellite networks, also known as mega-constellations, are required by current regulations to share all available satellite spectrum. This paper proposes a consensus mechanism to facilitate spectrum sharing with accountability by multiple operators, a subset of which may even be adversarial. A distributed ledger is used to securely record and track the state of consensus on spectrum usage, including interference incidents and the corresponding responsible parties. A key challenge is that operators generally do not have initial agreement due to noise in their analog measurements. To address this, two categories of spectrum-sharing solutions are studied in detail. The first category employs an exact Byzantine fault tolerant (BFT) agreement model; the second category utilizes an approximate BFT agreement model. Practical considerations were taken into account regarding the BFT agreements, substantiated by numerical findings on the feasibility of the proposed solutions within the context of non-geostationary orbit satellite networks (NGSO).
In a space-air-ground integrated network (SAGIN), managing resources for the growing number of highly-dynamic and heterogeneous radios is a challenging task. Symbiotic communication (SC) is a novel paradigm, which leverages the analogy of the natural ecosystem in biology to create a radio ecosystem in wireless networks that achieves cooperative service exchange and resource sharing, i.e., service/resource trading, among numerous radios. As a result, the potential of symbiotic communication can be exploited to enhance resource management in SAGIN. Despite the fact that different radio resource bottlenecks can complement each other via symbiotic relationships, unreliable information sharing among heterogeneous radios and multi-dimensional resources managing under diverse service requests impose critical challenges on trusted trading and intelligent decision-making. In this article, we propose a secure and smart symbiotic SAGIN (S^4) framework by using blockchain for ensuring trusted trading among heterogeneous radios and machine learning (ML) for guiding complex service/resource trading. A case study demonstrates that our proposed S^4 framework provides better service with rational resource management when compared with existing schemes. Finally, we discuss several potential research directions for future symbiotic SAGIN.
Igor A. Kalmykov, В Ш Мухаметшин, K T Tyncherov, M V Selivanova
Abstract Low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite communication systems must have anti-jam property, which is based on information, structural and energy secrecy as well as immunity to jamming. One of the directions associated with increasing information secrecy is based on the use of a satellite identification system. This system is designed to prevent the imposition of foreign content on the subscriber through the use of an authentication protocol built on proof with zero knowledge. To reduce the time of applicant identification, a number of works propose to use modular codes (MC), which allow parallelizing the computational process in the protocol. It is known that MCs can improve the fault tolerance of the identification system since they are able to eliminate the consequences of faults and failures during operation. However, they can also be used to improve the immunity of LEO satellite communication systems to jamming. Thus, the use of a unified algebraic system when constructing MCs capable of correcting errors caused not only by faults and failures during the operation of the identification system but also by interference in the communication channel will enable to abandon concatenated codes. Therefore, the development of a method for constructing a modular turbo code for an anti-jam satellite authentication system is an urgent task.
Space-air-ground integrated network is capable of providing seamless and ubiquitous services to cater for the increasing wireless communication demands of emerging applications. However, how to efficiently manage the heterogeneous resources and protect the privacy of connected devices is a very challenging issue, especially under the highly dynamic network topology and multiple trustless network operators. In this paper, we investigate blockchain-empowered dynamic spectrum management by reaping the advantages of blockchain and software defined network (SDN), where operators are incentive to share their resources in a common resourced pool. We first propose a blockchain enabled spectrum management framework for space-air-ground integrated network, with inter-slice spectrum sharing and intra-slice spectrum allocation. Specifically, the inter-slice spectrum sharing is realized through a consortium blockchain formed by the upper-tier SDN controllers, and then a graph coloring based channel assignment algorithm is proposed to manage the intra-slice spectrum assignment. A bilateral confirmation protocol and a consensus mechanism are also proposed for the consortium blockchain. The simulation results prove that our proposed consensus algorithm takes less time than practical Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm to reach a consensus, and the proposed channel assignment algorithm significantly improves the spectrum utilization and outperforms the baseline algorithm in both simulation and real-world scenarios.
Nikita Konstantinovich Chistousov, Igor A. Kalmykov, Daniil Vyacheslavovich Dukhovnyj, М. И. Калмыков · 5 authors
Authentication protocols are expanding their application scope in wireless information systems, among which are low-orbit satellite communication systems (LOSCS) for the OneWeb space Internet, automatic object identification systems using RFID, the Internet of Things, intelligent transportation systems (ITS), Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET). This is due to the fact that authentication protocols effectively resist a number of attacks on wireless data transmission channels in these systems. The main disadvantage of most authentication protocols is the use of symmetric and asymmetric encryption systems to ensure high cryptographic strength. As a result, there is a problem in delivering keys to the sides of the prover and the verifier. At the same time, compromising of keys will lead to a decrease in the level of protection of the transmitted data. Zero-knowledge authentication protocols (ZKAP) are able to eliminate this disadvantage. However, most of these protocols use multiple rounds to authenticate the prover. Therefore, ZKAP, which has minimal time costs, is developed in the article. A scheme for adapting protocol parameters has been developed in this protocol to increase its efficiency. Reductions in the level of confidentiality allow us to reduce the time spent on the execution of the authentication protocol. This increases the volume of information traffic. At the same time, an increase in the confidentiality of the protocol entails an increase in the time needed for authentication of the prover, which reduces the volume of information traffic. The FPGA Artix-7 xc7a12ticsg325-1L was used to estimate the time spent implementing the adaptive ZKAP protocol. Testing was performed for 32- and 64-bit adaptive authentication protocols.
With the rapid development of satellite technology and the high transmission efficiency of LEO satellites, LEO satellite communication has received increasing attention. However, the frequent switching of satellite-earth links imposes a great challenge in LEO communication authentication. To tackle this challenge, this paper proposes a Blockchain-based Authentication Protocol Using Cryptocurrency Technology (BAPC), which solves the problem of a long pause time of satellite services caused by user access authentication in a scenario of frequent switching between satellites and ground users. First, we design three stages of the authentication process and introduce the cryptocurrency technology. Using currency transactions as the certificate of authentication improves not only the security of authentication, but also the efficiency of switching authentication. Next, in the network topology, the satellite cluster is divided into multiple regions to improve the efficiency of block consensus. Finally, the protocol is tested through extensive NS2-based simulations, and the results verify that BAPC can greatly shorten the response time of switching authentication and significantly reduce the time of block generation and the network throughput. As the number of users increases, the block generation time and network throughput can be further reduced.
This article reviews the 6G global landscape and the most relevant private and public initiatives, with US$ billions of investments in next generation information and communication (ICT) systems and application services. Then, it presents the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) technology roadmap towards 6G and 5G New Radio (NR) releases. This is followed by an introduction to the latest shift in paradigm “from Internet of Things (IoT) to Internet of Intelligence (IoI)”, which paves the way towards 6G wireless. The new system is anticipated to provide pervasive connectivity to functions with the ability to represent knowledge, process knowledge, and make decisions, with or without human intervention. Beyond that, the paper discusses the new carrier frequency bands above 110 GHz; and innovative fundamental enabling technologies, such as integrated semantic communication and sensing, low earth orbiting satellites, quantum key distribution, post quantum cryptography, and distributed ledger technology; and portrays a network vision for 6G wireless, looking to 2030 and beyond. Conclusions are drawn on 6G prospects, the needs of security by design for 6G; as well as the potential of 6G for securely connecting pervasive intelligence and preserving privacy; and new research directions to cater for new use categories and requirements.
In satellite communication systems, satellite power and processing capacities are limited, which means that storage and security are also constrained. Satellite communication channels are extremely vulnerable to hackers and external interference signals. Protecting satellite networks from illegal information access and use can be extremely challenging. In this paper, an architecture composed of satellite and ground equipment is developed that integrates communication network authentication and privacy protection structures. In the proposed scheme, the communication, registration, authentication, and revocation of information are achieved through stages to improve communication security. The satellite forwards the collected information to a ground base station, which has a strong data processing capacity. The ground base station records all the key parameters in the distributed blockchain, and all malicious node certificates are removed from the system. To further enhance data transmission security, the key is transferred using an asymmetric encryption algorithm. To measure the robustness of using the proposed network architecture, under the same attack condition, an invulnerability analysis is performed. After conducting simulation experiments, the results show that the proposed scheme greatly improves communication security and protection.
Emanuele Di Pascale, Hamed Ahmadi, Linda Doyle, Irene Macaluso
Neutral Host Small Cell Providers (SCP) represent a key element of the 5G\nvision of ultra-dense mobile networks. However, current business models mostly\nfocus on multi-year agreements for large venues, such as stadiums and hotel\nchains. These business agreements are regulated through binding Service Level\nAgreements (SLAs), which tend to be too cumbersome and costly for smaller scale\nSCPs. As a result, the neutral host model does not scale up to its full\npotential. In this paper, we propose a framework to enable the participation of\nsmall- to medium-sized players in the cellular market as providers offering\nnetwork resources to Mobile Network Operators (MNOs). To this purpose, we\nreview the current and emerging spectrum and technology opportunities that SCPs\ncan use for neutral host deployments. We also propose the use of\nblockchain-enabled smart contracts as a simple and cost-efficient alternative\nto traditional SLAs for small-scale SCPs. To demonstrate this, we describe a\nproof of concept implementation of an Ethereum-based smart contract platform\nfor best-effort service between an SCP and an MNO. Our simulations on potential\nsmart contract-based deployments in city centre Dublin show that the received\nsignal strength in the considered area will increase by an average of $10$\npercent.\n
LEO constellation has received intensive research attention in the field of satellite communication. The existing centralized authentication protocols traditionally used for MEO/GEO satellite networks cannot accommodate LEO satellites with frequent user connection switching. This paper proposes a fast and efficient access verification protocol named BAVP by combining identity-based encryption and blockchain technology. Two different key management schemes with IBE and blockchain, respectively, are investigated, which further enhance the authentication reliability and efficiency in LEO constellation. Experiments on OPNET simulation platform evaluate and demonstrate the effectiveness, reliability, and fast-switching efficiency of the proposed protocol. For LEO networks, BAVP surpasses the well-known existing solutions with significant advantages in both performance and scalability which are supported by theoretical analysis and simulation results.