Ahmed Al-Ansi, Abdullah M. Al‐Ansi, Ammar Muthanna, Andrey Koucheryavy
The next generation of wireless networks, 6G is being designed with data-intensive applications. One of the key technologies that will enable 6G is blockchain technology. The emergence of blockchain technology and 6G networks has revolutionized service migration. Service migration in 6G networks is a complex process that requires the integration of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), edge computing, and network slicing. Motivated by these facts, this comprehensive review includes an overview of blockchain and service migration integration in 6G. First, state of art, development frame work and related works were introduced. Then, we used content analysis by WordStat software and bibliographic analysis by VOSviewer to analysis the current status of service migration and blockchain integration in 6G networks. Next, patterns and characteristics, benefits and challenges and potential cases were reviewed. Then, we proposed an architectural blockchain-based model including decentralized architecture, edge computing, network slicing, software-defined networking, and 5G-6G interworking in 6G. Finally, we described potential application service migration-based in 6G networks including digital twin (DT), holograms, robot avatar, high density internet of things (IoT), AR and VR in 6G and collected open research and future directions of service migration and blockchain.
Aya H. Allam, Ibrahim Gomaa, Hala H. Zayed, Mohamed Taha
Abstract The eHealth sector has witnessed significant growth due to technological advancements, facilitating care delivery in patients' homes and moving away from traditional hospital settings. Blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT) play pivotal roles in enhancing healthcare services, offering features such as remote patient monitoring, streamlined electronic medical record (EMR) management, drug traceability, and effective disease control, particularly during events like the COVID-19 pandemic. The growing utilization of IoT devices brings about security challenges, including concerns related to data integrity and device authentication. This paper proposes the integration of blockchain technology as a robust solution. Leveraging its decentralized and tamper-resistant features, blockchain establishes trust among diverse IoT devices, ensuring the integrity of IoT data. Additionally, smart contracts enhance device authentication, fortifying overall security by addressing vulnerabilities associated with centralization. Regarding the management of eHealth, this survey begins with an overview of the industry, highlighting IoT-related challenges in healthcare. It explores various IoT applications in eHealth and discusses how blockchain can effectively address obstacles in healthcare management through IoT. Notably, the paper provides insights into examining consensus algorithm parameters within blockchain systems, clarifying the methodology used to assess and optimize these critical components. The survey extends to a thorough review of existing research on integrating blockchain-based IoT in eHealth. Finally, it presents an overview of challenges and potential solutions for implementing blockchain-based IoT in the eHealth sector. This comprehensive survey aims to empower stakeholders by providing insights to enhance patient care in this dynamic and evolving field.
Abstract Today, the confidentiality and security of patient medical records is of great importance. This study proposes a scheme that aims to store, access, and share medical data without risking security vulnerabilities and attacks. In the proposed scheme, medical data are divided into sensitive and non-sensitive patient data. Three consensus mechanisms (Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and Proof of Authority (PoA)) are implemented and compared to each other in terms of performance. The performance analysis of the proposed scheme shows that PoW provides approximately 21% and 9% better results than PoA and PoS for non-sensitive data in terms of block size, respectively. It also provides approximately 23% and 32% better results than PoA and PoS for sensitive data in terms of memory usage, respectively. The security analysis demonstrates that it has many security features and is strong against man-in-the-middle, impersonation, and modification attacks.
The proposed idea is to give all the agricultural stakeholders secure storage. We must automate several processes utilizing brilliant codes to reduce risks and errors. The suggested schema applies Blockchain, source codes, and IoT on a farm network to enhance the analysis of agrarian datasets and tracking products to raise the productivity of agro-based supply chains. The application’s architecture will fix the faults found in earlier research. In the suggested method, sensors give us information about the environment. The Blockchain ledger stores our data in blocks. We create special agricultural automated codes in the treatment layer to automate task decisions.
In the mobile edge computing (MEC) environment, the edge caching can provide the timely data response service for the intelligent scenarios. However, due to the limited storage capacity of edge nodes and the malicious node behavior, the question of how to select the cached contents and realize the decentralized security data caching faces challenges. In this paper, a blockchain-based decentralized and proactive caching strategy is proposed in an MEC environment to address this problem. The novelty is that the blockchain was adopted in an MEC environment with a proactive caching strategy based on node utility, and the corresponding optimization problem was built. The blockchain was adopted to build a secure and reliable service environment. The employed methodology is that the optimal caching strategy was achieved based on the linear relaxation technology and the interior point method. Additionally, in a content caching system, there is a trade-off between cache space and node utility, and the caching strategy was proposed to solve this problem. There was also a trade-off between the consensus process delay of blockchain and the caching latency of content. An offline consensus authentication method was adopted to reduce the influence of the consensus process delay on the content caching. The key finding was that the proposed algorithm can reduce latency and can ensure the security data caching in an IoT environment. Finally, the simulation experiment showed that the proposed algorithm can achieve up to 49.32%, 43.11%, and 34.85% improvements on the cache hit rate, the average content response latency, and the average system utility, respectively, compared to the random content caching algorithm, and it achieved up to 9.67%, 8.11%, and 5.95% increases, successively, compared to the greedy content caching algorithm.
Blockchain technology utilizes a decentralized and distributed ledger system (a list of all transactions across a peer-to-peer network) to securely record transactions across a network of computers. Using this technology, participants can transfer value across the Internet without the need for a central third party. Blockchain is the cornerstone of cryptocurrencies, offering a secure and transparent framework for recording transactions along with its unknowns and benefits. In the realm of digital currencies like Bitcoin, blockchain functions as a decentralized ledger, documenting every transaction across a distributed network. Its pivotal roles include decentralization, transparency, immutability, consensus mechanisms, security, and mining. Collectively, blockchain technology furnishes the infrastructure that empowers cryptocurrencies, enabling them to function as decentralized, secure, and trustless systems for the transfer of value. The fundamental principles of blockchain contribute to the robustness and dependability of cryptocurrencies in the digital landscape.
Marisol García‐Valls, Alejandro M. Chirivella-Ciruelos
Integrating digital twin technology in Cyber-Physical Systems and Internet of Things can boost their intelligence. Given the current maturity of digital twin technology (yet in progress), improving the models that these systems use is typically achieved off-line, requiring the system to stop and reconfigure to run each new model version. In fact, most works use cloud back-ends to run heavy machine learning algorithms, imposing strict requirements on the data exchange between the physical system and the cloud. We address the online improvement of digital twin models in cyber–physical systems by supporting model refinement without disrupting nor stopping the normal operation of the system. This improves the dynamicity of the system that may turn into a major competitive advantage in a number of industrial scenarios. Precisely, we exploit the collaborative expectation of next generation cyber–physical systems based on highly-connected cells enabled by 5G and 6G networking; and on top of these, we design a shared space properly managed to deliver the needed temporal behaviour required by cyber–physical systems. For this, we present the design of CoTwin framework as a middleware that allows cells to collectively improve digital twin models seamlessly. CoTwin manages the interaction of cells with a blockchain-based collaborative space offering a built-in trusted storage model. We integrate neural network algorithms as they provide fast execution that meet the time-sensitivity requirements of cyber–physical systems. Our contribution is validated by means of its implementation and deployment on an actual blockchain network, and an exhaustive set of experiments to analyse the resulting overhead and temporal behaviour. Results show that CoTwin achieves stable execution times accross all its functional pieces; and it exhibits stable service time for large sets of cells.
This study aims to delve into the knowledge graph, functional pathways, and qualitative logic among elements such as network trust, blockchain organization, user identity, big data, and information security in the digital economy era. Through an analysis of the endogenous and exogenous explicit management logic relationships among these elements, this study innovatively constructs three primary dimensions and nine secondary dimensions of digital identity attributes for users. Additionally, it establishes a collaborative management mechanism between government organizations and non-governmental blockchain alliances corresponding to identity attributes based on the delegated proxy mechanism. Furthermore, it reconstructs the big data chain management framework for user digital identity under the zero-trust model and establishes a management process for blockchain digital identity information security protection under the zero-trust model. These efforts provide innovative solutions with both research and application value for the “virtual-real integration” global security governance of the metaverse, digital economy, and digital government.
This article delves into the inherent security of blockchain technology by evaluating the sophisticated techniques it employs. Key among these are mathematical hash functions, elliptic curve cryptography, and zero-knowledge proofs. Mathematical hash functions ensure that data stored is immutable; any slight alteration to the information will lead to a drastically different hash output, making any tampering evident. Elliptic curve cryptography provides a robust encryption mechanism, ensuring that data transactions remain confidential and secure. Meanwhile, zero-knowledge proofs enable one party to prove to another that they possess specific knowledge without revealing the actual information, further bolstering privacy. Owing to these technological underpinnings, blockchain not only excels in safeguarding sensitive data but also facilitates operations like verifying information authenticity. Moreover, in sectors like supply chain management, it offers capabilities for precise logistics positioning and traceability. Such applications underline blockchain’s potential as a tool for transparency and security in various industries. Through these features and mechanisms, blockchain stands as an exemplar of digital security in today’s interconnected era.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
The blockchain is a technology that utilizes a decentralized and distributed ledger system to enhance security in cloud computing for distributed systems. It has gained significant attention in various applications, including the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud computing. However, the blockchain has scalability limitations that restrict its ability to handle different types of transactions effectively. On the other hand, cloud computing provides the availability of shared computer system resources on demand, but it faces challenges related to automation, process management, policy, and others. By combining blockchain technology with cloud computing in a unified system, it is possible to improve data integrity, resource management, pricing, fair compensation, and resource allocation. This article examines the applications and challenges of blockchain, emphasizing how it ensures data integrity, transparency, and resistance to tampering. It also explores various use cases to address obstacles like scalability issues and interoperability concerns, providing a comprehensive overview of the intersection between blockchain, distributed systems, and cloud computing security. The integration of cloud computing and blockchain is important for business applications because it offers advantages in terms of privacy, security, and service support. This review provides an extensive and up-to-date summary of the integration of cloud computing and blockchain, highlighting its significance in business contexts.
In the contemporary healthcare domain, the integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies has revolutionized patient care, enabling real-time monitoring, enhanced diagnostics, and personalized treatment plans. However, this digital transformation is accompanied by unprecedented challenges in ensuring the security and privacy of sensitive healthcare data. Traditional cybersecurity measures often fall short in addressing the complexity and dynamism of IoT ecosystems. This research introduces a novel blockchain-based security system framework specifically designed for the healthcare sector utilizing IoT. By leveraging the inherent security, transparency, and immutability features of blockchain technology, the proposed framework provides a robust solution to safeguard healthcare data integrity, ensure privacy, and enable secure patient data sharing among authorized entities. Through a comprehensive system architecture, this paper delineates the integration of IoT devices with a blockchain network, highlighting the deployment of smart contracts for automated access control, and data encryption mechanisms to preserve confidentiality. An empirical evaluation demonstrates the framework's effectiveness in enhancing data security while maintaining system efficiency. The discussion extends to the implications of this framework for the future of healthcare IT security, addressing potential challenges and suggesting avenues for further research. This study not only contributes to advancing the state of cybersecurity in healthcare IoT but also lays the groundwork for future innovations in the field.
This research introduces an Adaptive Fog Computing Framework (AFCF) aimed at enhancing the efficiency and scalability of IoT ecosystems through blockchain technology integration, addressing task allocation, resource management, and task offloading challenges within fog and cloud computing paradigms. Employing simulations, the study utilized task distribution strategies, blockchain stability assessment, and cloud server workload management, demonstrating the framework’s capacity to maintain performance across diverse IoT settings. Quantitative results revealed a cent percent success rate in task processing, with a balanced load distribution at 50% and an average task complexity of 6.47893 in arbitrary units. The system demonstrated a latency of 48.479 milliseconds and a throughput of 2.469697 tasks per timestep, showcasing high scalability (97.8%) and energy efficiency (15.774194 in arbitrary efficiency units), emphasizing the AFCF’s robustness in varied tasks and resource dynamics. The study concludes the AFCF’s potential for real-world IoT applications, highlighting its implications for future research and practical deployment, underscoring its contribution to fog and cloud computing literature and paving the way for further exploration into adaptive computing frameworks.
Rafah Amer Jaafar, Saad N. Alsaad, Mohammed N. Al‐Kabi
Educational certificate counterfeiting is a major global challenge. There is no doubt that addressing both the problem of forgery and the verification of academic certificates is a fundamental issue that deserves research, development, and support at the highest levels. This paper presents a decentralized educational certificate verification system leveraging the Ethereum blockchain and the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) to combat counterfeiting. Ropsten is used as a real-life Ethereum test network to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system. IPFS is used to store educational certificate files on a decentralised file system. The smart contract is built in the Solidity language, compiled, and deployed using the online Remix IDE. The verification process is supported by scanning a QR code, which retrieves the validating certificate’s information from the Ethereum network in real-time.
Open access
Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Este estudo aborda o desenvolvimento de uma micro-blockchain privada para a coleta de dados de dispositivos da Internet Industrial das Coisas (IIoT) utilizando microeletrˆonicos com funcionalidades similares. O DHT11 foi empregado como sensor de temperatura, enquanto o ESP32 WROOM foi utilizado como microcontrolador IIoT, demonstrando um desempenho superior ao Arduino Nano 33 IoT em aplica¸c˜oes IIoT. A pesquisa concentrouse na seguran¸ca da comunica¸c˜ao de dados em ambientes fabris na camada de aplica¸c˜ao, levando em considera¸c˜ao a prevalˆencia de ataques cibern´eticos. Foi proposto um m´etodo que, apesar da necessidade de implementa¸c˜ao manual de dados, apresentou resultados significativos em termos de funcionalidade e aplicabilidade. A transmiss˜ao de dados do protocolo MQTT em uma rede blockchain web3 provou ser segura contra ataques Man-inthe- Middle e DDoS. ´E importante ressaltar que as transa¸c˜oes realizadas na micro-blockchain n˜ao envolvem o gasto de bitcoins. O estudo tamb´em explorou o uso do Proof of Work (PoW) na micro-blockchain para produzir o carimbo de data/hora da cria¸c˜ao da chave privada. Foram identificadas limita¸c˜oes e sugeridas pesquisas futuras para automatizar o processo de implementa¸c˜ao de dados. Diretrizes para trabalhos futuros foram propostas, incluindo a comunica¸c˜ao f´ısica cabeada e a restri¸c˜ao da troca de informa¸c˜ao ao acesso de chaves privada e p´ublica. Este estudo contribuiu para a literatura existente e abriu novas possibilidades para pesquisas futuras na integra¸c˜ao segura de dispositivos IIoT em ambientes fabris.
S. B. Goyal, Anand Singh Rajawat, Manoj Kumar, Prerna Agarwal
INTRODUCTION: Cloud computing's offshoot, fog computing, moves crucial data storage, processing, and networking capabilities closer to the people who need them. There are certain advantages, such improved efficiency and lower latency, but there are also some major privacy and security concerns. For these reasons, this article presents a new paradigm for fog computing that makes use of blockchain and Artificial Intelligence (AI). OBJECTIVES: The main goal of this research is to create and assess a thorough framework for fog computing that incorporates AI and blockchain technology. With an emphasis on protecting the privacy and integrity of data transactions and streamlining the management of massive amounts of data, this project seeks to improve the security and privacy of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) systems that are cloud-based. METHODS: Social network analysis methods are utilised in this study. The efficiency and accuracy of data processing in fog computing are guaranteed by the application of artificial intelligence, most especially Support Vector Machine (SVM), due to its resilience in classification and regression tasks. The network's security and reliability are enhanced by incorporating blockchain technology, which creates a decentralised system that is tamper resistant. To make users' data more private, zero-knowledge proof techniques are used to confirm ownership of data without actually disclosing it. RESULTS: When applied to fog computing data, the suggested approach achieves a remarkable classification accuracy of 99.8 percent. While the consensus decision-making process of the blockchain guarantees trustworthy and secure operations, the support vector machine (SVM) efficiently handles massive data analyses. Even in delicate situations, the zero-knowledge proof techniques manage to keep data private. When these technologies are integrated into the fog computing ecosystem, the chances of data breaches and illegal access are greatly reduced. CONCLUSION: Fog computing, which combines AI with blockchain, offers a powerful answer to the privacy and security issues with cloud centric IIoT systems. Combining SVM with AI makes data processing more efficient, while blockchain's decentralised and immutable properties make it a strong security measure. Additional security for user privacy is provided via zero-knowledge proofs. Improving the privacy and security of fog computing networks has never been easier than with this novel method.
Guanyi Wang, Chen Chen, Ziyu Jiang, Gang Li · 6 authors
CryptoKitties, a trendy game on Ethereum that is an open-source public blockchain platform with a smart contract function, brought nonfungible tokens (NFTs) into the public eye in 2017. NFTs are popular because of their nonfungible properties and their unique and irreplaceable nature in the real world. The embryonic form of NFTs can be traced back to a P2P network protocol improved based on Bitcoin in 2012 that can realize decentralized digital asset transactions. NFTs have recently gained much attention and have shown an unprecedented explosive growth trend. Herein, the concept of digital asset NFTs is introduced into the medical and health field to conduct a subversive discussion on biobank operations. By converting biomedical data into NFTs, the collection and circulation of samples can be accelerated, and the transformation of resources can be promoted. In conclusion, the biobank can achieve sustainable development through "decentralization."
S. Velmurugan, M. Prakash, S. Neelakandan, Eric Ofori Martinson
Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems are a valuable and effective tool for exchanging medical information about patients between hospitals and other significant healthcare sector stakeholders in order to improve patient diagnosis and treatment around the world. Nevertheless, the majority of the hospital infrastructures that are now in place lack the proper security, trusted access control, and management of privacy and confidentiality concerns that the current EHR systems are supposed to provide. Goal. For various EHR systems, this research proposes a Blockchain-enabled Hyperledger Fabric Architecture as a solution to this delicate issue. The three steps of the suggested system are the secure upload phase, the secure download phase, and authentication. Patient registration, login, and verification make up the authentication step. The administrator grants authorization to read, edit, delete, or revoke the files following user details verification. In the secure upload phase, feature extraction is carried out first, and then a hashed access policy is created from the extracted feature. Next, the hash value is stored in an IoT-based Hyperledger blockchain. The uploaded EHR files are additionally encrypted before being stored on the cloud server. In the secure download step, the physician uses a hashed access policy to send the request to the cloud and decrypts the corresponding files. The experimental findings demonstrate that the system outperformed cutting-edge techniques. The proposed Modified Key Policy Attribute-Based Encryption performs better for the remaining 10 to 25 mb file sizes. This IoT framework compares MKP-ABE with certain efficiency indicators, such as encryption, decryption period, protection level analysis and encrypted memory use, resource use on decryption, upload time, and transfer time, which are present in the KP-ABE, the ECC, RSA, and AES. Here, the IoT device suggested requires 4008 ms for data encryption and 4138 ms for the data decryption.
Blockchain is a revolutionary technology that has reshaped the trust model among mutually distrustful peers in a distributed network. While blockchain is well-known for its initial usage in a public manner, such as the cryptocurrency of Bitcoin, consortium blockchain, which requires authentication of all involved participants, has also been widely adopted in various domains. Nevertheless, there is a lack of comprehensive study of consortium blockchain in terms of its architecture design, consensus mechanisms, comparative performance, etc. In this study, we aim to fill this gap by surveying the most popular consortium blockchain platforms and assessing their core designs in a layered fashion. Particularly, Byzantine fault tolerant (BFT) state machine replication (SMR) is introduced to act as a basic computational model of consortium blockchain. Then the consortium blockchain is split into the hardware layer, layer-0 (network layer), layer-I (data layer, consensus layer and contract layer), layer-II protocols, and application layer. Each layer is presented with closely related discussion and analysis. Furthermore, with the extraction of the core functionalities, i.e., robust storage and guaranteed execution, that a consortium blockchain can provide, several typical consortium blockchain-empowered decentralized application scenarios are introduced. With these thorough studies and analyses, this work aims to systematize the knowledge dispersed in the consortium blockchain, highlight the unsolved challenges, and also indicate the propitious avenues of future work.
Software Development based on Scrum Agile in a distributed development environment plays a pivotal role in the contemporary software industry by facilitating software development across geographic boundaries. However, in the past different frameworks utilized to address the challenges like communication and collaboration in scrum agile distributed software development (SADSD) were notably inadequate in transparency, security, traceability, geographically dispersed location work agreements, geographically dispersed teamwork effectiveness, and trust. These deficiencies frequently resulted in delays in software development and deployment, customer dissatisfaction, canceled agreements, project failures, and disputes over payments between customers and development teams. To address these challenges of SADSD, this paper proposes a new framework called ChainAgile, which leverages blockchain technology. ChainAgile employs a private Ethereum blockchain to facilitate the execution of smart contracts. These smart contracts cover a range of functions, including acceptance testing, secure payments, requirement verification, task prioritization, sprint backlog, user story design and development and payments with the automated distribution of payments via digital wallets to development teams. Moreover, in the ChainAgile framework, smart contracts also play a pivotal role in automatically imposing penalties on customers for making late payments or for no payments and penalties on developers for completing the tasks that exceed their deadlines. Furthermore, ChainAgile effectively addresses the scalability limitations intrinsic in blockchain technology by incorporating the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) is used for storage solutions as an off-chain mechanism. The experimental results conclusively show that this innovative approach substantially improves transparency, traceability, coordination, communication, security, and trust for both customers and developers engaged in scrum agile distributed software development (SADSD).
Blockchain technology has been successfully applied in recent years to promote the immutability, traceability, and authenticity of previously collected and stored data. However, the amount of data stored in the blockchain is usually limited for economic and technological issues. Namely, the blockchain usually stores only a fingerprint of data, such as the hash of data, while full, raw information is stored off-chain. This is generally enough to guarantee immutability and traceability, but misses to support another important property, that is, data availability. This is particularly true when a traditional, centralized database is chosen for off-chain storage. For this reason, many proposals try to properly combine blockchain with decentralized IPFS storage. However, the storage of data on IPFS could pose some privacy problems. This paper proposes a solution that properly combines blockchain, IPFS, and encryption techniques to guarantee immutability, traceability, availability, and data privacy.
The rise of Bitcoin, a decentralized digital currency built on blockchain technology, marks the onset of a novel era in financial transactions and has generated substantial interest among academics and industry professionals. The fundamental notion of trust lies at the core of Bitcoin's success and broad acceptance. It is imperative to understand better the factors influencing trust in Bitcoin for the progression of scholarly advancement and practical implementations. Against this background, this paper explored the fundamental research question of what factors influence trust in Bitcoin. Firstly, we conducted a literature review and examined 22 empirical articles investigating determinants of trust in Bitcoin. Secondly, we conducted a quantitative survey with 372 participants to investigate the top 20 determinants of trust in Bitcoin. We leveraged our literature review results, considering that most examined articles used qualitative methods and often had a broader focus on blockchain technology rather than Bitcoin itself. Our survey results uncovered the perceived nature and strength of the relationship between the 20 determinants of trust in Bitcoin, particularly emphasizing how Bitcoin ownership status influenced these findings. In summary, our results contribute to an enhanced understanding of the elements shaping trust in Bitcoin, which is vital both from an academic standpoint and for its practical significance, considering the widespread public interest in Bitcoin.
Runchen Xu, Zheng Chang, Xinran Zhang, Timo Hämäläinen
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) assisted mobile edge computing (MEC) systems have emerged as a promising technology with the capability to expand terrestrial networks. UAVs, working as edge computing nodes and mobile base stations, can be deployed closer to user equipment (UEs). However, with the rapid increase of UEs, the scarcity of spectrum resources and computing resources has become a critical challenge for future mobile communication systems. Additionally, the inherent characteristics of wireless transmission and untrusted broadcasting pose significant security and privacy concerns for multi-UAV networks. To address these issues, this paper presents a blockchain-based resource trading mechanism (BRTM) and a double auction-based resource trading algorithm (DARA) for multi-UAV edge computing systems. It combines blockchain technology with double auction theory to ensure the security and fairness of resource trading. The relations between UEs and UAVs as a two-stage Stackelberg game is formulated and a pricing-based incentive strategy is proposed. The proposed scheme encourages active participation from both UEs and UAVs while maximizing the sum of their utilities. The security assessment and numerical outcomes show that the proposed method is effective and outperforms other benchmark schemes.
C. K. Shinzeer, Ajay Shriram Kushwaha, Avinash Bhagat
Blockchain technology is a distributed, accessible, open, and decentralized digital ledger used in healthcare to record transactions between devices. It addresses issues like data integrity, privacy, and confidentiality. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the deployment of digital technologies, such as Distributed Ledger Technology, which enables a decentralized consensus between operational data states. This technology can enhance data access, integrity, and patients’ control over their credentials. A survey was conducted with the help of the World Health Organization, Kaggle, and the Ministry of Health Government of India and Kerala with the aim to identify potential uses for blockchain technology in immunization and the collection of patient data.