Blockchain technology, underpinned by distributed ledger systems, has evolved from a novel innovation into a transformative and integral component of enterprise digitization across industries. Since its inception with Bitcoin in 2008, blockchain has expanded beyond cryptocurrencies, with applications in operations management (OM) growing rapidly across industries. Despite its promise, however, the integration of blockchain into OM is not without challenges. Scholars have identified significant barriers to successful implementation, ranging from technological and organizational hurdles to regulatory complexities (Chod et al. 2020; Hanisch et al. 2025; Lin et al. 2022; Lumineau et al. 2021; Sodhi et al. 2022; Zhan et al. 2025). This Special Issue on Operational Perspectives on Blockchain Applications presents cutting-edge research that explores blockchain's opportunities, challenges, and implications for OM. The articles in this issue provide a diverse and empirically grounded examination of blockchain applications across industries and operational contexts. We will discuss each contribution in turn. However, prior to that, it is useful to dig into the operational nuances, opportunities, and challenges presented by the focal context. Our editorial discussion opens accordingly, outlining the technological, organizational, and regulatory challenges while identifying the conditions under which blockchain can deliver value. We also touch on the broader societal implications of blockchain, addressing its political, economic, social, environmental, and legal dimensions before describing how each of the papers in the special issue contributes to understanding, critical to operations management. Finally, our editorial discussion concludes by charting a research agenda, highlighting key questions and interdisciplinary approaches needed to advance both theoretical and practical understanding of blockchain in OM. Working processes need to be discovered, described, and understood before they can be improved, controlled, and prescribed. Quite a bit of work is needed merely to describe some of the important activities, practices, processes, and operating systems utilized in diverse organizations. Only then can we begin to sink our teeth into developing better theories about how best to manage them. For this purpose, Ilk et al. (2021) conceptualize the Bitcoin blockchain (and other mainstream permissionless blockchains) as a two-side dataspace market, where users demand a certain amount of dataspace in a future block to store their transactions, and miners compete to produce such dataspace by creating new blocks. To facilitate this market in a decentralized manner—that is, with no centralized party absorbing demand and controlling supply—users attach a transaction fee (which is higher for users with a higher waiting cost) that becomes one of the miners' sources of revenue. With the increasing popularity1 of Bitcoin and Ethereum, demand frequently exceeds supply, creating contemporaneous system congestions. The congested service pricing literature, which dates back to the management of highway tolls (Naor 1969) and electric power supply (Viswanathan and Edison 1989) and extends in modern days to subscription pricing of cloud services (Cachon and Feldman 2011) and surge pricing of gig economy platforms (Cachon et al. 2017), yields a generalized conclusion. Specifically, “offering multiple service grades that each render a different delay distribution at a different price” improves both perceived customer satisfaction and service provider profit (Van Mieghem 2000, 1249). Permissionless blockchains, as congested service systems, are no exception to this rule. Although no centralized party (i.e., firm or platform) sets the priority price menu, users bid transaction fees to differentiate the service grades (i.e., transaction confirmation speeds) they desire. More details on the process view of permissionless blockchain transactions can be found in Shang et al. (2023, 106–108). Although early Ethereum-based smart contract applications were rarely associated with OM or any other real-world assets, their ingenuity inspired a whole class of permissioned blockchains (also referred to as private or consortium chains), in which only an authorized group of users can participate, setting the stage for enterprise applications (Fan et al. 2024; Pun et al. 2021). While blockchain offers considerable potential, its successful implementation is hindered by technological, organizational, and regulatory barriers. Below, we highlight seven of the most critical challenges to blockchain implementation discussed in the press and in the literature. Low throughput and high transaction fees. The primary reason that mainstream cryptocurrency systems cannot be used for day-to-day payment is their throughput limits: 3 per second for Bitcoin and 13 per second for Ethereum.2 This limitation is in sharp contrast with the processing capacity of established financial systems like Visa, which is capable of handling approximately 5000 transactions per second (Malik et al. 2022). Such scalability limits are largely inevitable for permissionless blockchains that aim to ensure decentralization and security, widely known as the “blockchain trilemma” in the industry.3 The throughput limit results in a frequently congested service system with transaction fee spikes (Ilk et al. 2021; Shang et al. 2023), which has been 2.87 USD per transaction for Bitcoin in 2020. This hinders the economic viability of small value transactions even in situations where network latency is less of a concern (e.g., users with high waiting tolerance). Meanwhile, permissioned blockchains typically do not face throughput limits, as dataspace suppliers are usually the blockchain owners and hence do not have to be incentivized via instruments such as transaction fees. However, due to the lack of public visibility and the corporate ownership of these blockchains, this solution is unlikely to be suitable for all applications. Algorithm fairness. Advocates of permissionless blockchains often highlight their morally significant goal of improving access to money transfer services for unbanked and underbanked populations (Andreasson 2022). Importantly, much of the wealth on permissionless blockchains is created through mining/staking revenue—that is, through participation on the supply side—and small users typically cannot meet the entrance threshold for this revenue stream. Further, while large senders can develop sophisticated algorithms to estimate the desired transaction fee more accurately, small senders typically rely on the free-to-use fee recommendation tools crypto wallets provide. Encouragingly, this disparity is somewhat alleviated by new transaction fee mechanism designs (Zhao, Wu, et al. 2025). Decentralization–efficiency tradeoff. The management of a cryptocurrency system is typically maintained by a decentralized autonomous organization (DAO). A DAO's daily operational tasks include the development of, voting on, and execution of crowdsourced proposals (Zhao et al. 2022). Yet, not all project decisions are strategic enough to warrant crowdsourcing of ideas from stakeholders, and the inefficiency of doing so affects operational agility and the quality of service provided by the DAO. Further, while decentralization can improve service levels for users and providers, it reduces profits for founders, reflecting a broader tension between decentralization and efficiency (Gan et al. 2023). Governance frictions are compounded by token-weighted voting, where those holding more tokens have greater influence, creating a mismatch between token ownership and subject expertise (Benhaim et al. 2023, 2025; Tsoukalas and Falk 2020). Cross-chain interoperability. A successful blockchain application often requires coordination of activities across multiple chains. This is especially true for enterprise applications, where material flow needs to be traced on a permissioned blockchain (for obvious business confidentiality reasons) and payment of goods should preferably happen on a permissionless blockchain. In general, the lack of universal standards creates a fragmented landscape in which disparate blockchain platforms are developed in isolation. This technical challenge of interoperability is further complicated by the need to integrate blockchain with legacy systems, which typically lack the flexibility to accommodate cryptographic protocols and distributed data synchronization (Babich and Hilary 2019). Standardization of input data. Many of the cargo tracking and supply chain traceability blockchain applications assume the existence of a data on-ramp that is accessible to and standardized across participants. This is far from reality. As Fan et al. (2024, 3) put it, “a small supplier, say, in India or China, is unlikely to have the resources or expertise to set up an arrangement to access blockchain.” Even if such access is set up by a large participant of the permissioned blockchain, such as a superstore retailer, the input data from thousands of small suppliers across the world might not be properly digitized and standardized. Both the invasive and non-invasive approaches to bridging the physical–digital interface in blockchain applications have merits and drawbacks (Klöckner et al. 2023). Buy-in from partner organizations. Lin et al. (2022) highlight buy-in from partners along with information complexity as two important drivers that determine the success of blockchain pilots in real life. They stress the importance of reducing information complexity as well as increasing buy-in among supply chain partners. Critically, the cost and hassle of implementation are borne by all organizations that the cargo passes through, including port authorities, customs agencies, shipment forwarders, trucking companies, and so on. Some of these organizations lack the basic incentive to even digitize their paperwork, let alone upload information onto a blockchain owned by another company. Regulatory uncertainty. Regulatory challenges present another significant barrier to blockchain adoption in OM. The regulatory framework for blockchain is still in a nascent stage, with many jurisdictions lacking clear guidelines regarding its use, especially in non-financial contexts such as OM (Wagner et al. 2025). The cross-border nature of many supply chains makes it even more challenging to reconcile diverse regulatory environments; thereby complicating large-scale implementations (Wamba and Queiroz 2020). In summary, blockchain presents a range of unique characteristics, implementation challenges, and potential transformative impacts. Figure 1 captures many of these, as well as presenting new opportunities to apply common theoretical lenses used by researchers to understand this new technology, including Transaction Cost Economics (TCE), Principal Agent Theory (PAT), and Resource-Based View (RBV). These features are pushing the OM community to consider additional theoretical arguments regarding blockchain-related operational dynamics so as to more comprehensively understand, anticipate, and ultimately contribute to practice and scholarship in this domain. More specifically, traditional theoretical frameworks commonly applied in OM, such as transaction cost economics, principal–agent theory, and the resource-based view, have proven effective for analyzing centralized systems where information is controlled and trust is built through well-established interorganizational relationships. However, blockchain disrupts these conventional relationships by enabling peer-to-peer interactions governed not by a central authority but by cryptographic mechanisms and consensus protocols. For instance, the immutability of recorded transactions and the inherent decentralization of blockchain networks modify the traditional calculus of trust and coordination costs. These features create “trustless” environments where the need for intermediaries is significantly reduced. This shift calls into question the applicability of many preexisting theoretical models that assume reliance on centralized control and interpersonal trust (Lumineau et al. 2023). Given these fundamental differences, one promising direction for future research is to expand network theory and social capital theory in OM by integrating the notion of distributed trust. Whereas social capital theory has been used to explain performance improvements arising from strengthened interorganizational relationships (Saberi et al. 2019), blockchain technology challenges these premises by redistributing trust across the network without necessarily relying on strong personal or organizational ties (Lumineau et al. 2023). Similarly, although transaction cost theory provides insight into how blockchain can lower the costs of verification and contracting by obviating the need for costly intermediaries, the theory does not fully account for the dynamic interplays that arise when trust is engineered digitally and contractual obligations are embedded in smart contracts (Halaburda et al. 2024). As Babich and Hilary (2019) note, new theoretical models need to capture not only the cost-saving benefits of disintermediation but also the potential trade-offs in terms of data insecurity and operational inflexibility. There is also a growing recognition that hybrid frameworks, which merge elements of institutional theory and network governance with emerging blockchain paradigms, may be necessary to understand new organizational forms like DAOs (Zhao et al. 2022). The need for novel theoretical frameworks is particularly critical when considering the impact of blockchain on various stakeholders within the OM ecosystem. Traditional models generally emphasize dyadic relationships between buyers and suppliers, but blockchain enables multi-stakeholder environments in which data transparency, provenance, and auditability permeate complex, global supply networks. For example, Chod et al. (2020) show how blockchain can improve financing in agricultural supply chains by enabling farmers to use harvest inventory as loan collateral. Using multi-signature setups tied to an immutable blockchain, transactions require confirmation from both humans (e.g., lenders or warehouse operators) and automated systems (e.g., IoT sensors). This approach allows for real-time verification of collateral, reduces information asymmetry, and unlocks capital, particularly in settings prone to fraud. Together, the articles in this Special Issue make a multifaceted contribution to OM, demonstrating the impact of blockchain technology in various operational forms on strategic decision-making, worker participation, competitive and network dynamics, and intellectual property protection across different sectors. These studies use robust empirical methods and diverse theoretical frameworks to offer novel insights into the role of blockchain in OM. Some of the studies use qualitative methods for developing theory concerning conditions for successful and failed blockchain adoption. Zhan et al. (2025) develop theory through an inductive, multi-case research design revealing the influence of founder power on blockchain adoption. Meanwhile, Hanisch et al. (2025) use an in-depth, longitudinal case study to explore the centralization–decentralization paradox of a group of studies or designs at the of or a and et al. (2025) on adoption of smart contracts and their operational studies use data from network or blockchain platforms Ethereum, and For example, (2025) and approaches to the operational impact of different consensus protocols on and worker et al. (2025) a by integrating ownership theory, and approaches to explore how decentralized ownership in DAOs et al. (2025) further develop the discussion by analyzing the transformative of blockchain on the protection of in In a et al. (2025) the impact of a on the operational the and et al. (2025) use an to the of on a decentralized and a centralized social These articles theoretical and empirical approaches to blockchain in OM, a on its strategic and operational most of the articles on or methods data from blockchain while a articles case studies and This may be due to the lack of large-scale data on OM Below, we will into the of each Zhan et al. 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(2025) how to on decentralized social which lack central authority and rely on community Using an with data from and the and show these methods in decentralized to centralized on decentralized networks and more but in a The research contributes to operations management by decentralized platforms as systems and practical insights for governance and Given the from the most research on the it clear that research questions and that might our understanding of blockchain's application opportunities and potential for OM. research question of in this framework is as do different blockchain governance impact operational efficiency and trust in on this should consider the between permissioned and permissionless blockchain how of decentralization and the role of smart contracts influence both and A study methods might performance data from blockchain with qualitative to how governance models trust among supply chain critical for effective potential of study into how blockchain can be embedded within enterprise and supply chain information systems to the and for more blockchain technology new models for inventory management of that account for customer of et al. 2024). might traditional inventory models with systems, case studies or controlled that improvements in and in with the of operations management such studies should on process details and merely the of technology and such as inventory A further further to is, can blockchain be to in supply chains This of research tracking and smart contracts the for and as well as how this technology can a role by in supply networks. studies that supply chain performance across as well as studies to blockchain's impact under various be particularly question might can blockchain be to in supply or should supply chain be with blockchain technology to or data However, these questions might also more in the of information systems particularly if their is not to operational process In future research in this will from into the multifaceted implications of blockchain technology for OM. research the impact of blockchain governance on operational efficiency and the transformative potential of blockchain for inventory management and supply chain and the capacity to in the face of central to both theoretical and practical an interdisciplinary approach that from public information technology, and organizational theory, future research can develop frameworks that the real-world challenges of blockchain in supply networks. 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Eleonóra Bassi, Michael Lustenberger, Srebrenka Letina
This research examines the structure of blockchain-based voluntary carbon market (VCM) and the factors shaping their formation. Conducted as part of the 2023–2025 Innosuisse project 104.664 IP-EE, it aims to provide insights to support participants in strategic positioning within the network. To our knowledge, this is one of the first empirical attempts to map the blockchain-enabled VCM ecosystem with social-network analysis, thereby extending digital-transition research into the climate-finance domain. Specifically, the study focuses on three exploratory aims: identifying the network position of key participants, evaluating the influence of blockchain platform affiliation on collaboration, and analyzing the relationship between standardization methods and network positioning. Using network analysis, the study categorizes participants like project owners, certification bodies, blockchain platforms, and carbon credit marketplace into distinct roles such as key hubs, strategic bridges, local connectors, and peripheral nodes. Participants using the same blockchain platform exhibit a moderate clustering tendency, suggesting shared infrastructure plays a role in fostering partnerships. Additionally, the choice of standardization methods for carbon credits correlates with specific network positions. These findings offer a structure-based view of how technical design choices may redistribute influence across the market–an issue of growing interest as regulators and standards bodies debate digital registry architectures. By uncovering these dynamics, the study emphasizes the importance of strategic positioning within blockchain-based VCMs. Native tokenization strategies are shown to simplify supply chains, while the decentralized ecosystem fosters diverse approaches to collaboration. The conceptual framework may be transferable to other emerging green-finance networks, providing a springboard for comparative and longitudinal analyses.
The Smart Mobility vision calls for dynamic resource and service discovery to cope with the intrinsic topology volatility of Internet of Things (IoT) platforms without sacrificing the required business continuity and service flexibility. For an extended automation of collaboration within and across enterprise boundaries, trust management is equally important, granting security, reliability and scalability at the same time. To tackle the above challenges, this paper proposes the integration of a semantic-based service management layer in an IoT infrastructure grounded on the Hyperledger Sawtooth blockchain. Every service in the outlined framework is annotated with reference to a domain ontology, so that smart contracts can exploit knowledge representation and non-standard reasoning for service registration, discovery, outcomes explanation and service selection. A case study on power management of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) is proposed to clarify the benefits of the proposal. Early performance evaluation results support the feasibility and sustainability of the approach.
Geet Bawa, Harmeet Singh, Sita Rani, Aman Kataria · 5 authors
Existing organ transportation management systems face significant limitations as they do not allow patients to monitor the condition of the transplantable organ during its transportation from the donor's place to the recipient's venue. This undermines patients' confidence that the organ allotted to them remains uncontaminated, healthy, and unaffected by fluctuations in parameters including temperature, humidity, and the container's vibration, and orientation. Additionally, there is a lack of technology to ensure that the organ container remains securely closed throughout the shipment. Furthermore, the shipment data is often stored in centralized or with third-party systems, which are potentially vulnerable to security risks and single points of failure. These limitations highlight the need for a more secure, transparent, and reliable solution to improve organ transportation safety and data integrity. This paper addresses these challenges by proposing a cost-efficient, decentralized, and transparent framework for managing organ transportation that enhances data security and traceability. The proposed framework integrates Internet of Things sensors within the organ container and connects them to smart contracts via the InterPlanetary File System. The blockchain ensures data security, immutability, and decentralization, while sensors safeguard the organ by providing real-time updates on its condition. The smart contracts generate alerts for issues and notify stakeholders for prompt action. A key contribution of this work is the novel use of IPFS for off-chain data storage, which reduces blockchain storage requirements, Ether consumption, and overall system costs. A comparative analysis with existing IoT, IPFS, and blockchain-based transportation approaches demonstrates that the proposed framework consumes a negligible amount of Ether; approximately, 0.000023004, equivalent to approximately 5.52 INR; for deployment, while ensuring safe, transparent, cost-effective, and traceable organ transportation.
Blockchain or Distributed Ledger Technology’s (DLT) disruptive architecture will revolutionise both economic activity and social structure. Institutional crypto economics is a new analytic framework for studying that evolutionary process in general, and bitcoin in particular, it presents us with a new method of organising the world, just like the Internet did. Bitcoin will have a similar effect on economy, money and finance. Developing countries face multiple problems such as lack of financial services and infrastructure (road, railways, telecommunication, and others). The disruptive architecture of Blockchain or Distributed Ledger Technology is well suited to benefit developing countries. This will be clearly visible in the implementation and application of Internet of Things (IoT) in emerging services. The nature of innovation in service-sector-based technology in developing countries differs, and the nature of IoT as a potentially disruptive emergent service product technology enabler emphasises this difference. The conventional productprocess innovation divide may no longer be applicable: the true value in IoT rests in neither. It is present in the system as well as the data collected by all devices everywhere in the world. The services income, which is generated by a combination of intelligent apps, analytics, and system integration services, represents a considerably greater revenue possibility for both developers and consumers of IoT enabled use cases. This paper presents how a peer-to-peer network that provides coverage for low-power IoT devices bringing a new viewpoint to the cellular telecommunications market. The network is a decentralised IoT infrastructure that is built on a Blockchain or Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) by the people, communities, and individuals to offer hotspots wireless to the communities that help creates opportunities in financial freedom, helps supply chains traceability, forestry control and others. The paper demonstrates that decentralised IoT networks based on Tangle DAG can reduce infrastructure costs by 35-40% while increasing wireless coverage by 60%, with 1.5 million devices per 100 hotspots. It makes a unique and significant contribution to the deployment of IoT on Blockchain or Distributed Ledger Technology, as well as its potential to reduce poverty by improving the effectiveness and efficacy of existing procedures in various sectors of developing countries.
Peter Kimemiah Mwangi, Stephen Njenga, Gabriel Kamau
Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) tools provide a cost-effective way to simulate complex systems like an Internet of Things Distributed Ledger Technology (IoT-DLT) networks, where nodes operate as autonomous agents. While physical testbeds are expensive, ABMs offer scalable and efficient alternatives. However, few studies compare ABM performance on standard consumer hardware. In this research, we evaluate NetLogo 6.3 and Agents.jl (Julia 1.9) by simulating an IoT-DLT model across two laptop configurations. Results show that Agents.jl runs up to 9× faster on newer hardware and 4× faster on older hardware compared to NetLogo, though it requires more setup. NetLogo remains user-friendly but underutilises system resources like GPU and multicore processing. The research uses inferential analysis tools, such as regression analysis, to rigorously evaluate the performance differences between the ABM tools and hardware configurations. This research helps researchers choose efficient ABM tools for large-scale simulations on personal computers, demonstrating that emerging tools like Agents.jl are promising candidates for future simulations.
Guy Goren, Andrew Hariri, Timothy D. R. Hartley, Ravi Kappiyoor · 6 authors
Existing decentralized storage protocols fall short of the service required by real-world applications. Their throughput, latency, cost-effectiveness, and availability are insufficient for demanding workloads such as video streaming, large-scale data analytics, or AI training. As a result, Web3 data-intensive applications are predominantly dependent on centralized infrastructure. Shelby is a high-performance decentralized storage protocol designed to meet demanding needs. It achieves fast, reliable access to large volumes of data while preserving decentralization guarantees. The architecture reflects lessons from Web2 systems: it separates control and data planes, uses erasure coding with low replication overhead and minimal repair bandwidth, and operates over a dedicated backbone connecting RPC and storage nodes. Reads are paid, which incentivizes good performance. Shelby also introduces a novel auditing protocol that provides strong cryptoeconomic guarantees without compromising performance, a common limitation of other decentralized solutions. The result is a decentralized system that brings Web2-grade performance to production-scale, read-intensive Web3 applications.
The emerging paradigm of modern vehicles as sophisticated mobile data centers generates unprecedented volumes of telemetry, sensor, and interaction data that require novel management approaches. The architectural framework addresses dual requirements of edge processing for latency-sensitive applications and cloud infrastructure for deeper analytics and model development. Vehicle-to-everything communication protocols integrate with software-defined networks and distributed ledger technologies to ensure secure, efficient data exchange across the ecosystem. Technical challenges including bandwidth constraints, data redundancy, and privacy regulations are primary motivators for solutions based on federated learning, optimized compression algorithms, and context-aware processing. Resilient vehicular data management necessitates a multi-layered approach balancing computational requirements across the edge-cloud continuum while maintaining robust security postures. These foundations enable scaling next-generation intelligent transportation systems were vehicles function as key nodes in broader smart city infrastructures.
The use of Electric Vehicles (EV) will promote urban sustainability, decrease air pollution, and reduce noise pollution. In this landscape a new mobility concept termed shared electric mobility-as-a-service (eMaaS) has emerged over the years. Shared eMaaS comprises the seamless integration of various forms of electric transport services available via one single digital platform. Although, the current shared eMaaS solutions are based mostly on fragmented and siloed systems which has resulted to issues related to the exchange of data and services from different eMaaS providers. Therefore, there is need for integrators and enablers to achieve an inter-operable and intra-operable seamless shared eMaaS. To this end, Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) is proposed in this study to enable new business models for shared electric mobility solutions. As compared to conventional approaches DLT offers a transparent, cost-efficient, and decentralized services both for managing the supply and demand sides of shared eMaaS to improve public transportation. Accordingly, this article presents a DLT based business models grounded on the literature to decentralize shared eMaaS. Qualitative data is collected from Scopus and Web of Science database, and descriptive analysis is employed to analyze the collected data. Findings from this study presents use case scenarios of how IOTA tangle as a DLT using smart contracts and IOTA wallet/tokens are deployed to design novel business models for managing seamless travel experience for electric car sharing and leasing to improve public transportation.
Tarek Galal, Valeria Tisch, Katja Assaf, Andreas Polze
Railways provide a critical service and operate under strict regulatory frameworks for implementing changes or upgrades. Despite their impact on the public, these frameworks do not define means or mechanisms for transparency towards the public, leading to reduced trust and complex tracking processes. We analyse the German guideline for railway-infrastructural modifications from proposal to approval, using the guideline as a motivating example for modelling decisions in processes using digital signatures and zero-knowledge proofs. Therein, a verifier can verify that a process was executed correctly by the involved parties and according to specification without learning confidential information such as trade secrets or identities of the participants. We validate our system by applying it to the railway process, demonstrating how it realises various rules, and we evaluate its scalability with increased process complexities. Our solution is not railway-specific but also applicable to other contexts, helping leverage zero-knowledge proofs for public transparency and trust.
Bama Raja Segaran, Siti Nurulain Mohd Rum, Mohd Izuan Hafez Ninggal, Teh Noranis Mohd Aris
Abstract The rapid growth of carbon credit markets, driven by global efforts to mitigate climate change, highlights the critical need for transparency and accountability—particularly in forest-based carbon offset projects. Forest ecosystems play a vital role in carbon sequestration; however, these projects are increasingly vulnerable to greenwashing, where organizations exaggerate or misrepresent their environmental impact to appear more sustainable than they are. This literature review explores the integration of blockchain technology and machine learning (ML) to enhance verification processes and reduce fraudulent practices in forest carbon credits. Blockchain’s decentralized, immutable ledger offers a transparent and tamper-proof system for recording carbon credit transactions, ensuring traceability and reducing the risk of manipulation. Smart contracts embedded within blockchain networks can automate verification and compliance processes, enhancing efficiency while minimizing the need for human oversight. However, while blockchain ensures transparency, it lacks real-time anomaly detection capabilities. ML algorithms, particularly supervised models such as Random Forest, XGBoost, and Neural Networks, are well-suited for detecting fraudulent patterns and verifying the authenticity of forest carbon credit transactions. These algorithms can process large datasets, including satellite imagery and corporate disclosures, to identify discrepancies and improve the accuracy of carbon sequestration claims. This review also examines key performance metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and processing time to evaluate the efficiency of various ML algorithms for real-time fraud detection. The findings suggest that integrating ML and blockchain technologies, combined with satellite data, can significantly strengthen transparency and verification in forest carbon credit markets. By enhancing verification mechanisms, this interdisciplinary approach helps mitigate greenwashing and fosters a more credible and transparent carbon credit market. It supports global sustainability efforts by ensuring that carbon sequestration claims from forest-based projects are both accurate and verifiable.
The global shift towards sustainable transportation necessitates efficient and secure payment systems for electric vehicle (EV) charging on electrified roads. Current blockchain-based payment infrastructures face high transaction costs, inefficiencies, and security vulnerabilities, impeding EV adoption. To address these challenges, we propose a blockchain-based Vehicle Payment System (VPS) tailored for electrified roads. VPS integrates a hybrid consensus mechanism combining Proof of Stake (PoS) and Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) for secure, decentralized, and efficient transaction validation. Scalability is enhanced through sharding, which distributes transaction load, while Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) ensure transaction confidentiality, and multi-signature transactions provide additional security. State channels further optimize performance by enabling off-chain transactions, reducing congestion, and increasing throughput. Unlike prior research, which often neglects scalability, privacy, and real-time performance holistically, VPS achieves under 3000 ms latency for invoke transactions, under 450 ms for queries with 1000 users, and a throughput of approximately 1100 transactions per second (TPS) at a send rate of 1300. These advancements establish VPS as a scalable, efficient payment solution for EV charging, supporting the transition to green mobility and informing sustainable infrastructure policies.
Asif Ahmad Bhat, Rizal Mohd Nor, Md Amiruzzaman, Md. Rajibul Islam · 5 authors
Blockchain, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, has received significant attention and widespread usage in recent years. However, blockchain scalability has emerged as a challenging issue. This article explores the existing scalability options for blockchain, which can be categorized into two groups: first layer solutions and second layer solutions. First layer solutions involve network modifications like altering block size, while second layer solutions encompass techniques applied outside of the blockchain. Ethereum, the second largest blockchain, utilizes the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) for executing smart contracts on the blockchain. Currently, there are several EVM-compatible blockchains with noticeable differences. In this study, we evaluated multiple platforms for conducting business processes in trade finance. We considered both Layer 1 and Layer 2 blockchain solutions and examined variations in cost and performance (speed). Based on the evidence gathered in this study, we provide recommendations for system designers to consider when selecting a blockchain platform.
Daria Smuseva, Andrea Marin, Sabina Rossi, Aad van Moorsel
A blockchain is an immutable ledger driven by a distributed consensus protocol. In public blockchains, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum Classic, consensus is established through a computational effort called Proof-of-Work (PoW). Special users called miners contribute to the PoW in exchange for a fee and also verify the data stored in blocks mined by the other miners. Here is where the Verifier’s Dilemma emerges. Verification of blocks does not receive a reward, and to maximise their profits, miners may be incentivised to forego verifying blocks and to only invest their resources in PoW. In this article, we study the Verifier’s Dilemma and a possible countermeasure consisting of the injection of invalid blocks using a quantitative model based on Markovian process algebra. To avoid the state space explosion problem, we study the underlying Markov chain by using a lumping that allows us to derive closed-form solutions for interesting performance indices. The analysis demonstrates the circumstances under which non-verifying miners gain fees higher than those of verifying miners. The model also allows us to derive the optimal rate at which invalid blocks must be injected so that skipping the verifying phase becomes economically disadvantageous whereas the throughput of the blockchain is only minimally reduced. The impact on miners’ rewards and overall performance is also assessed.
We present SmartShards: a new sharding algorithm for improving Byzantine tolerance and churn resistance in blockchains. Our algorithm places a peer in multiple shards to create an overlap. This simplifies cross-shard communication and shard membership management. We describe SmartShards, prove it correct and evaluate its performance. We propose several SmartShards extensions: defense against a slowly adaptive adversary, combining transactions into blocks, fortification against the join/leave attack.
Seelammal Chinnaperumal, Sekar Kidambi Raju, Amal H. Alharbi, Subhash Kannan · 8 authors
The research is aimed at filling the gap regarding the development of long-lasting, secure technologies that help build decentralized systems. Other consensus models, such as the Proof of Work (PoW), prevailing in cryptocurrencies, are known to be expensive in terms of energy, hence the development of enlightened models like Proof of Lightweight Hash, whereby while developing the model, an emphasis is placed on energy efficiency without compromising on security. At the same time, new technologies such as battery storage and electric vehicles are disrupting consumer habits where renewable energy is favored, and a decentralized energy market is promoted. It hails the aspect of fine access control provided by blockchain in addition to decentralization; a permission system is vital for any entities that require strict access control due to the nature of the data they hold. Blockchain in IoT and AI makes strategies innovative, adaptable, large-scale, and inclusive to make unique changes that benefit different industries and need scalability. Due to this combining of energy innovations and digital technologies, both energy and data networks become nearer to consumers, advocating sustainable, efficient urbanism. Altogether, these improvements will lead toward the emergence of systems that, aside from being technologically innovative, are also environmentally sustainable and protected. So the interaction of technology, ecological stability, and viable security provides the basis for a cleaner, stronger, de-centralized future as applied to advanced technologies, thus inculcating an equilibrium and stronger society.
Increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and the expansion of EV charging infrastructure present opportunities for enhancing sustainable transportation within smart cities. However, the interconnected nature of EV charging stations (EVCSs) exposes this infrastructure to various cyber threats, including false data injection, man-in-the-middle attacks, malware intrusions, and denial of service attacks. Financial attacks, such as false billing and theft of credit card information, also pose significant risks to EV users. In this work, we propose a Hyperledger Fabric-based blockchain network for EVCSs to mitigate these risks. The proposed blockchain network utilizes smart contracts to manage key processes such as authentication, charging session management, and payment verification in a secure and decentralized manner. By detecting and mitigating malicious data tampering or unauthorized access, the blockchain system enhances the resilience of EVCS networks. A comparative analysis of pre- and post-implementation of the proposed blockchain network demonstrates how it thwarts current cyberattacks in the EVCS infrastructure. Our analyses include performance metrics using the benchmark Hyperledger Caliper test, which shows the proposed solution’s low latency for real-time operations and scalability to accommodate the growth of EV infrastructure. Deployment of this blockchain-enhanced security mechanism will increase user trust and reliability in EVCS systems.
This systematic review examines the integration of directed acyclic graph (DAG)-based blockchain technology in smart mobility ecosystems, focusing on electric vehicles (EVs), robotic systems, and drone swarms. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a comprehensive literature search across Web of Science, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, and ACM Digital Library, screening 1248 records to identify 47 eligible studies. Our analysis demonstrates that DAG-based blockchain addresses critical limitations of traditional blockchains by enabling parallel transaction processing, achieving high throughput (>1000 TPS), and reducing latency (<1 s), which are essential for real-time applications like autonomous vehicle coordination and microtransactions in EV charging. Key technical challenges include consensus mechanism complexity, probabilistic finality, and vulnerabilities to attacks such as double-spending and Sybil attacks. This study identifies five research priorities: (1) standardized performance benchmarks, (2) formal security proofs for DAG protocols, (3) hybrid consensus models combining DAG with Byzantine fault tolerance, (4) privacy-preserving cryptographic techniques, and (5) optimization of feeless microtransactions. These advancements are critical for deploying robust, scalable DAG-based solutions in smart mobility, and fostering secure and efficient urban transportation networks.
This research examines smart mobility, specifically focusing on e-scooters as a mode of urban transportation. It underscores the advantages of e-scooters in smart cities while also addressing the issues stemming from incorrect riding practices. To understand the strategies of both cities and e-scooter companies, the study adopts a game theory approach. The research delves into how blockchain technology and hardware oracles can promote the appropriate use of e-scooters. In one scenario, the city allocates resources to infrastructure to facilitate e-scooter travel, while the e-scooter company defines its service. Nonetheless, continuous misuse of e-scooters negatively impacts both parties. Therefore, in another scenario, the research assesses how blockchain can detect and penalize incorrect behaviors using smart contracts. The findings reveal that while blockchain bolsters smart mobility and curbs the incorrect use of e-scooters, it might also dissuade certain users from utilizing the service, presenting a set of challenges to smart mobility. • -E-scooters can enhance smart mobility compared to traditional transportation. • -However, e-scooters can give rise to social issues when improperly used. • -The integration of blockchain with hardware oracles can enhance smart mobility. • -Blockchain can penalize improper behaviors through smart contracts. • -Unfortunately, people who dislike blockchain may renounce to smart mobility.
Stanislav I. Trofimov, Leonid Voskov, Mikhail Komarov
The development of intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) is penetrating many economies around the globe. This paper presents three key innovations in the field of intelligent transportation systems, as follows: (1) a novel tokenization approach where each vehicle is represented as a macro-token subdivided into 500,000 micro-tokens for precise condition monitoring, (2) a comprehensive mathematical model for vehicle state assessment incorporating multiple operational factors, and (3) the GDEPZ method for optimizing data transmission via satellite communication. These innovations enable the autonomous control of technical conditions, transparent fleet management, and efficient data processing in hard-to-reach areas. Various researchers in both industry and academia are looking into more efficient management methods for both vehicles and related data processing aspects. A vast trend related to the latter is the distributed data processing of transmitted data. This article discusses approaches to the use of blockchain technology in ITSs. It explores the use of blockchains in modern transport industries. In particular, the paper proposes a novel approach to the maintenance of public transportation vehicles and buses. The specificity of the proposed approach is the autonomous control of technical conditions using information systems. When using blockchain technology, building a transparent vehicle fleet management system is possible. The specificity of the proposed approach lies in data processing. Within the organization, confidence in data increases, the possibility of manipulating transportation is eliminated, and the decision-making chain is reduced. As a result, the system can manage itself. This also helps to increase the service life of vehicles, makes it possible to predict their malfunctions, and improves the quality of data on their technical conditions.
The problem of a single point of failure in centralized systems poses a great challenge to the stability of such systems. Meanwhile, the tamperability of data within centralized systems makes users reluctant to trust and use centralized applications in many scenarios, including the financial and business sectors. Blockchain, as a new decentralized technology, addresses these issues effectively. As a typical decentralized system, blockchain can be utilized to build a data-sharing model. Users in a blockchain do not need to trust other users; instead, they trust that the majority of miner nodes are honest. Smart contracts enable developers to write distributed programs based on blockchain systems, ensuring that all code is immutable and secure. In this paper, we analyze the security of blockchain technology to illustrate its advantages and justify its use. Furthermore, we design a new system for storing and trading vehicle information based on the Ethereum blockchain and smart contract technology. Specifically, our system allows users to upload vehicle information and auction vehicles to transfer ownership. Our application provides great convenience to buyers and owners, while the use of smart contracts enhances the security and privacy of the system.
Radu Miron, Mihai Hulea, Vlad Mureşan, Iulia Clitan · 5 authors
As cities evolve into smarter and more connected environments, there is a growing need for innovative solutions to improve urban mobility. This study examines the potential of integrating blockchain technology into passenger transportation systems within smart cities, with a particular emphasis on a blockchain-enabled Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) solution. In contrast to traditional technologies, blockchain’s decentralized structure improves data security and guarantees transaction transparency, thus reducing the risk of fraud and errors. The proposed MaaS framework enables seamless collaboration between key transportation stakeholders, promoting more efficient utilization of services like buses, trains, bike-sharing, and ride-hailing. By improving integrated payment and ticketing systems, the solution aims to create a smoother user experience while advancing the urban goals of efficiency, environmental sustainability, and secure data handling. This research evaluates the feasibility of a Hyperledger Fabric-based solution, demonstrating its performance under various load conditions and proposing scalability adjustments based on pilot results. The conclusions indicate that blockchain-enabled MaaS systems have the potential to transform urban mobility. Further exploration into pilot projects and the expansion to freight transportation are needed for an integrated approach to city-wide transport solutions.