Blockchain Papers

A. G. Ramakrishnan, Shubham Agarwal, Sharmila Kumari Selvanayagam, Kunwar P. Singh

As image generation models grow increasingly powerful and accessible, concerns around authenticity, ownership, and misuse of synthetic media have become critical. The ability to generate lifelike images indistinguishable from real ones introduces risks such as misinformation, deepfakes, and intellectual property violations. Traditional watermarking methods either degrade image quality, are easily removed, or require access to confidential model internals – making them unsuitable for secure and scalable deployment. We are the first to introduce ZK-WAGON, a novel system for watermarking image generation models using the Zero-Knowledge Succinct Non-Interactive Argument of Knowledge (ZK-SNARKs). Our approach enables verifiable proof of origin without exposing model weights, generation prompts, or any sensitive internal information. We propose Selective Layer ZK-Circuit Creation (SL-ZKCC), a method to selectively convert key layers of an image generation model into a circuit, reducing proof generation time significantly. Generated ZK-SNARK proofs are imperceptibly embedded into a generated image via Least Significant Bit (LSB) steganography. We demonstrate this system on both GAN and Diffusion models, providing a secure, model-agnostic pipeline for trustworthy AI image generation.

Tin Tironsakkul, Pradip Kumar Sharma

The advancement in smart mobility communication technology allows intelligent vehicles to interconnect and communicate with each other to improve traffic safety and efficiency. However, the highly dynamic nature of the smart mobility network and vehicle behaviour creates the requirement for effective authentication systems to establish secure and reliable communication between vehicles. The implementation of a reputation system has been proposed to establish trust among untrusted vehicles, where the reliability of a propagated message is assessed based on the reputation of the sender vehicle. Thus, preventing malicious vehicles from potentially broadcasting misleading messages that can cause accidents or disrupt the network. This paper proposes a novel decentralised and dynamic reputation management and computation model based on a consortium blockchain and a multi-signature smart contract. The implementation of blockchain and a smart contract provides a secure and transparent framework for registering vehicles, submitting events, voting feedback, evaluating reputation, and blocking malicious vehicles. To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed model, we conducted security and performance analyses. The results demonstrate how our model can provide resistance against various attacks, such as data tampering, message forging, self-promotion, vote duplication, bad-mouth, onoff, time-dependent, and collusion attacks.

Arpita Patil, Akanksha Mane, Poonam Todkar

Abstract: Ensuring the integrity, privacy and accessibility of electoral system remains a critical global challenge. This paper proposes a secure blockchain based e-voting framework enhanced with anti-spoofing facial recognition for voter authentication and zero-knowledge proofs to preserve voter anonymity while enabling verifiable results. The proposed system integrates seamlessly with existing election infrastructure, allowing transparent vote recording on a tamper-resistant distributed ledger while preventing identity fraud through advanced biometric anti-spoofing techniques. Zero Knowledge Proofs enable vote verification without revealing individual choices, ensuring both privacy and trust. By combining blockchain’s immutability, biometric security and cryptographic privacy guarantees, this approach addresses vote tampering, impersonation, and transparency concerns, offering a scalable , auditable, and privacy-preserving solution for modern elections. Keywords: Blockchain, E-Voting, Anti-Spoofing, Facial Recognition, Zero Knowledge Proofs, Election Security, Privacy preserving systems.

M Savitha Devi, Ningthoujam Chidananda Singh, Thoudam Basanta Singh

Abstract - The explosion of Internet of Things (IoT) devices calls for the design of computationally light blockchain consensus mechanisms immune to quantum threats. The conventional consensus protocols such as Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS) may have quantum cryptanalysis and incur high computational overhead on resource-limited IoT devices. In this paper, we introduce QR-LightChain, a new quantum-robust light weight consensus algorithm with the combination of lattice-based cryptography and a brand-new Proof-of-Lightweight-Work (PoLW). Our proposal is based on formalism Learning With Errors (LWE) as a quantum resistant based scheme, also, but with the use of the adaptive difficulty tuning and energy efficient mechanism to validate the hashing. Experimental results show that QR-LightChain reduces the computational overhead by 52.3% with respect to traditional quantum-resistant approaches, while preserving security against both classical and quantum adversaries. The protocol shows good performance in IoT: The average block validation time of 1.2 sec is achieved and there is 40% less energy consumed than for current quantum-resistant consensus in the literature. Our work fills the important research challenge of providing 1 Post-Quantum Cryptography and Blockchain Modern internet of things (IoT) blockchain net- works are being developed in resource-constrained environments such as smart cities, while QCs Key Words: Quantum resistance, IoT blockchain, lightweight consensus, lattice-based cryptography, post-quantum cryptography, Proof-of-Lightweight-Work, resource-constrained devices

Kombou Victor, Qi Xia, Hu Xia, Jianbin Gao · 9 authors

Non-fungible token (NFT) markets present a dual analytical challenge: integrating heterogeneous data modalities (high-dimensional visual features and discrete transaction sequences) while preserving privacy for sensitive wallet addresses and trading strategies. Current approaches analyze visual attributes or transaction patterns in isolation, missing critical value drivers from cross-modal interactions. Meanwhile, existing multimodal techniques lack formal privacy guarantees, exposing participants to inference attacks. This article introduces PrivaMod, a privacy-preserving Bayesian framework that addresses these limitations through uncertainty-aware multimodal fusion. Our approach implements precision-weighted Bayesian fusion that dynamically adjusts modality contributions based on quantified uncertainty levels, while integrating Rényi Differential Privacy throughout the pipeline via calibrated noise injection and adaptive gradient clipping. Evaluated on 167,492 CryptoPunk transactions, PrivaMod achieves a market efficiency score of 0.874 and R 2 of 0.912, outperforming existing methods by 13.4% through superior cross-modal integration while maintaining strong privacy guarantees ( \(\varepsilon\) = 0.08, \(\delta\) = 1e-5) with membership inference attack success rates near random guessing (53.4%). The system demonstrates that privacy-preserving techniques can enhance rather than compromise analytical performance, establishing a foundation for responsible market analysis. To ensure reproducibility, we release our code, preprocessed datasets, and model checkpoints with detailed documentation and scripts to replicate all experiments. PrivaMod is available at https://github.com/kvjunior/PrivaMod/blob/main/README.md .

Abdullah Ayub Khan, Asif Ali Laghari, Hamad Al-Mansour, Leila Jamel · 8 authors

The multimedia environment has undergone significant growth, particularly in the area of multimedia data and its migration to cloud platforms, which has raised issues about security, confidentiality, data integrity, and privacy protection. While Blockchain Distributed Ledger Technology (BDLT) offers decentralized trust and transparency the advent of Quantum Computing threatens classical cryptographic primitives, which make multimedia data increasingly vulnerable. This paper proposes a novel and secure framework that collaborates BDLT with quantum-resilient, mainly known post-quantum cryptographic schemes to ensure long-term data integrity and privacy preservation in cloud-based infrastructures. Due to this, the proposed solution enables secure, efficient, and transparent that helps in public auditing of multimedia content without compromising stakeholder confidentiality. It leverages Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs), lattice-based cryptography, and smart contract automation, which model fortifies data authenticity verification against quantum attacks. Simulation results illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework that achieves a 98.21% accuracy in data integrity verification, a 96.84% reduction in quantum vulnerability, and an 87.85% efficiency gain in auditing speed compared to classical BDLT-enabled platforms. In addition, privacy leakage in multimedia systems is reduced by 92.47% proving the framework’s robustness. This solution underscores the potential of synergizing BDLT, quantum secure cryptography, and cloud computing to build a future-proof solution for privacy-protected multimedia data management and public auditing.

Franco Frattolillo

Watermarking protocols represent a possible solution to the problem of digital copyright protection of content distributed on the Internet. Their implementations, however, continue to be a complex problem due to the difficulties researchers encounter in proposing secure, easy-to-use and, at the same time, “trusted third parties” (TTPs)-free solutions. In this regard, implementations based on blockchain and smart contracts are among the most advanced and promising, even if they are affected by problems regarding the performance and privacy of the information exchanged and processed by smart contracts and managed by blockchains. This paper presents a watermarking protocol implemented by smart contracts and blockchain. The protocol uses a “layer-2” blockchain execution model and performs the computation in “trusted execution environments” (TEEs). Therefore, its implementation can guarantee efficient and confidential execution without compromising ease of use or resorting to TTPs. The protocol and its implementation can, thus, be considered a valid answer to the “trilemma” that afflicts the use of blockchains, managing to guarantee decentralization, security, and scalability.

Yichen Tan, Yuyang Cheng, Lu Ding, Yong Zhao

Account-based anonymous blockchain systems can provide robust privacy protection for users. However, they become highly inefficient when handling high-frequency micro-payment scenarios. This paper presents systematic optimizations for batch processing and micro-payment transactions in account-based anonymous blockchain systems to enhance both privacy and efficiency. Building on BlockMaze, the first account-based anonymous blockchain system fully protecting transaction privacy, we propose innovations in batch transfers, batch receipts, and micro-payment handling. By reducing redundant data, improving circuit design, and optimizing zk-SNARK proof generation, we achieve up to 55.90% and 23.02% reductions in overall time consumption for batch transfers and receipts, respectively, significantly cutting computational cost and memory use. For micro-payments, a solution encapsulating the payment deadline reduces transaction delays and fund freezing. Experimental results show only slight increases in proof generation time—1.41 seconds for transfers and 1.02 seconds for payments—while maintaining privacy protection. This research lays a foundation for practical applications of account-based anonymous blockchain systems, enhancing privacy, processing efficiency, and transferability to other systems. • Optimized batch processing and improve transaction efficiency in account-based anonymous blockchain systems. • Optimized circuit design reduces redundant data and shortens zero-knowledge proof times. • Time consumption decreased by up to 55.90% in batch transfer function and 23.02% in batch receipt function. • Highly transferable to other account-based anonymous blockchain systems, offering strong flexibility and application potential. • Offers future research directions to improve blockchain efficiency and privacy protection.

Anjana Nagaria, Chetan Shingadiya

Encouraging just, secure, and open election processes is a fundamental aspect of any democratic culture. Traditional and even modern electronic voting systems are plagued by persistent issues like the failure to provide anonymity for voters, forgery risks, scalability, and the absence of verifiable trust. This paper proposes a blockchain-based digital voting framework designed to address these systemic limitations by leveraging distributed ledger technology and smart contracts. The proposed solution offers end-to-end verifiability, vote immutability, and decentralized auditing mechanisms through a mobile-accessible platform built on Ethereum using Solidity and Hardhat, with Node.js and React.js for frontend interfacing. Experimental results demonstrate improved system scalability, resistance to tampering, and support for remote voting, while maintaining ballot privacy and affordability. The research also evaluates key performance indicators under various test scenarios, establishing the system’s effectiveness and practical relevance in real-world electoral environments.

Anwar Ali Sathio, Muhammad Malook Rind, Shafique Ahmed Awan, Sameer Ali

No abstract is available for this record.

Gerard de Roode, Maarten H. Everts

As interest in the practical use of cryptocurrencies continues to grow, so does the focus on the (perceived) privacy and anonymity of users within this domain. Despite this attention, there is a notable absence of standardized definitions for these terms. This article aims to address this gap by exploring the various interpretations of privacy, anonymity, and related concepts in the context of cryptocurrencies. Drawing from a thorough review of existing literature, we propose practical definitions for both privacy and anonymity. Utilizing these definitions, we introduce an ontology designed to streamline future research, identify knowledge gaps, and facilitate clearer communication in the field.

Daniel Morales, Isaac Agudo, Javier López

Cryptocurrencies, particularly Bitcoin, continue to be the most prevalent use case within the blockchain ecosystem. One of the inherent limitations of blockchain is that it can create a false sense of privacy. All transaction history and the amount of cryptocurrency held are publicly available, and this information can be easily associated with specific individuals. Many works have proposed fully-private solutions, which are ideal but not realistic in many scenarios. This paper proposes a technical solution that enables private Bitcoin payments by default, but with the option to conditionally disclose payment data. To do so, this solution relies on unlinkability by a decentralized mixer, which can be reversed by a conditional discloser using a trapdoor unlinkability function. The conditional discloser, which also provides accountability of requests, obeys the payer's policies regarding who can access payment data. To ensure compliance, we propose a mixer that does not learn anything about the payment link, but is guaranteed by Zero-Knowledge Proofs that the payment can be relinked by a specific conditional discloser. Furthermore, we provide a proof-of-concept implementation of the proofs, using Circom and SnarkJS. We also present a benchmark that demonstrates the feasibility of this solution. It incurs only one additional parameter per on-chain transaction, while the remainder of the verification data is managed off-chain.

Svitlana Shevchenko, Yuliia Zhdanovа, Pavlo Skladannyi, Mykhailo Ishchuk

True democracy, strong trust of people in the government and legal transfer of power in the country are possible only when elections are held honestly and correctly. Modern information technologies contribute to innovative restructuring of electoral processes, ensuring optimization of the voting process, minimizing human errors, increasing accessibility for voters. At the same time, the introduction of digital technologies creates significant problems with information security, in particular, possible changes in voting results, manipulation, threats to integrity, availability, confidentiality and anonymity. One of the effective solutions for ensuring information security in electronic voting (e-voting) is blockchain technology. This study is devoted to the problem of developing a website for electronic voting using blockchain technology. Based on the study of scientific literature, the essence, principles, advantages and disadvantages of this technology are revealed. A comparative analysis of the best practices for implementing blockchain technology in the e-voting process is presented. As an example, the process of developing a website for electronic voting using blockchain technology is described: functional requirements for this system are established, the architecture of the software application is described, and a use case diagram is modeled. TypeScript was used as the main programming language for the backend development, Nest.js as a framework, PostgreSQL for data management, and Web3.js for implementing the backend functionality. The frontend was implemented using the TypeScript programming language, the React framework, and Tailwind CSS for interface design. The developed electronic voting platform demonstrates high flexibility and can be implemented for various electoral procedures. Its functionality covers both elections of officials (for example, the rector of the university) and local votes (for example, the election of the head of an academic group), as well as referendums to evaluate the activities of structural units. The data identified during the study can enrich educational materials for students of the 12th Information Technology branch.

Qinghua Hu, Chunxiang Xu, Wanpeng Li

The purpose of the covert communication scheme is to conceal the communication behavior entirely. In such schemes, the sender and receiver rely on secret keys to establish a covert channel. However, conventional key exchange protocols would expose the key exchange process between them. An adversary who observes the key exchange would be aware of the existence of communication behavior. The keys used in covert communication are not suitable to be generated through conventional key exchange schemes. To address this, we propose a blockchain-based covert elliptic-curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange scheme (BCDH) to conceal the process of the key exchange in blockchain transactions. Following a straightforward setup, BCDH allows the sender and receiver to covertly exchange a secret key on a blockchain without direct communication. Furthermore, we expand the BCDH approach to operate across multiple blockchains, further enhancing its covertness and stability. We analyze BCDH from several perspectives, including covertness, security, randomness, etc. Additionally, we implement a prototype of BCDH on the Ethereum platform to assess its feasibility and performance. Our evaluation demonstrates that BCDH is efficient and well-suited for real-world applications.

Jadyn Kimber, Enrico Branca, Andrei Natadze, Natalia Stakhanova

The increasing number of Ethereum scams is causing significant concern within the blockchain community, costing users millions of dollars annually. Yet, our understanding of how these scams operate remains limited. In this study, we present the first end-to-end analysis of crypto scams using a large set of malicious Ethereum accounts as a case study. We examine the tactics these scams employ on social media platforms to deceive users and convince them to transfer funds to malicious accounts. Our analysis explores the full life cycle of these scams, considering both their distribution through social media and their activity on the Ethereum blockchain. We identify several unique aspects of Ethereum phishing scams that have not been documented in prior literature and find that these scams generally persist significantly longer and result in greater financial losses compared to traditional phishing scams studied in earlier research.

Guoqiang Zhang, Qiwei Hu, Yu Zhang, Tao Jiang

The developing Sixth-Generation (6G) network aims to establish seamless global connectivity for billions of humans, machines, and devices. However, the rich digital service and explosive heterogeneous connection between various entities in 6G networks can not only induce increasing complications of digital identity management but also raise material concerns about the security and privacy of user identity. In this paper, we design a user-centric identity management that returns the sole control to the user self and achieves identity sovereignty towards 6G networks. Specifically, we propose a blockchain-based Identity Management (IDM) architecture for 6G networks, which provides a practical method to secure digital identity management. Subsequently, we develop a fully privacy-preserving identity attribute management scheme by using zero-knowledge proof to protect the privacy-sensitive identity attribute. In particular, the scheme achieves an identity attribute hiding and verification protocol to support users in obtaining and applying their identity attributes without revealing concrete data. Finally, we analyze the security of the proposed architecture and implement a prototype system to evaluate its performance. The result shows that our proposed architecture can ensure that users effectively manage their digital identity in 6G networks.

Hui Meng, Zixin Sang

Since Diffie and Hellman's pioneering work on asymmetric cryptography in 1976, digital signature technology has evolved through three phases—theoretical foundation, standardization, and diversified innovation—emerging as a cornerstone of trust in digital societies. Theoretically, foundational frameworks were established by RSA, DSA, and Schnorr algorithms. Standardization efforts, including NIST DSS, ISO/IEC series, and national systems (e.g., China's SM2/SM9, Russia's GOST), fostered a multipolar ecosystem. Extended-attribution technologies (blind, group, and ring signatures) addressed privacy and scenario-specific demands. Current challenges, such as quantum computing threats and privacy-regulation trade-offs, drive advancements in post-quantum cryptography (lattice-based signatures, hash-based XMSS) and privacy-enhancing mechanisms (verifiably encrypted signatures, homomorphic signatures), guided by ISO/IEC redactable standards and NIST's post-quantum initiative. Moving forward, digital signatures will deepen capabilities in provable security, quantum resistance, and adaptive policy control, underpinning trust architectures for emerging ecosystems like Web3 and the metaverse.

Xiaofei Zhao, Jieqiong Ding, Y.F. Su, Hua Wang · 7 authors

No abstract is available for this record.

Authors unavailable

Traditional electronic voting systems face sig-nificant challenges, including susceptibility to tam-pering, lack of transparency, and vulnerabilities in voter authentication.To address these issues, this paper proposes a decentralized e-voting archi-tecture that integrates Aadhaar-based identity val-idation, biometric authentication (fingerprint and facial recognition), and Ethereum blockchain tech-nology for secure and immutable vote recording [1].The system leverages multi-factor authentica-tion to ensure only eligible voters can participate, while blockchain's distributed ledger guarantees tamper-proof storage and real-time auditability of votes.Experimental evaluations demonstrate that the proposed framework achieves a throughput of over 10,000 transactions per second with 99.99% uptime, making it scalable for large-scale elections.By eliminating centralized points of failure and enabling remote voting, this approach signif-icantly enhances electoral integrity, accessibility, and public trust.Future work will explore inte-gration with postquantum cryptography to further strengthen long-term security.

Manuel J. C. S. Reis

The rapid expansion of 5G networks and edge computing has amplified security challenges in Internet of Things (IoT) environments, including unauthorized access, data tampering, and DDoS attacks. This paper introduces EdgeChainGuard, a hybrid blockchain-based authentication framework designed to secure 5G-enabled IoT systems through decentralized identity management, smart contract-based access control, and AI-driven anomaly detection. By combining permissioned and permissionless blockchain layers with Layer-2 scaling solutions and adaptive consensus mechanisms, the framework enhances both security and scalability while maintaining computational efficiency. Using synthetic datasets that simulate real-world adversarial behaviour, our evaluation shows an average authentication latency of 172.50 s and a 50% reduction in gas fees compared to traditional Ethereum-based implementations. The results demonstrate that EdgeChainGuard effectively enforces tamper-resistant authentication, reduces unauthorized access, and adapts to dynamic network conditions. Future research will focus on integrating zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) for privacy preservation, federated learning for decentralized AI retraining, and lightweight anomaly detection models to enable secure, low-latency authentication in resource-constrained IoT deployments.

Dhruv Kumar Maurya, J Naveen Ananda Kumar, Gaurav Agarwal, Navdeep Singh

An E-voting framework utilizing decentralized technology can establish a secure and transparent environment for elections, where voters can confidently cast their ballots knowing that their votes are final and untampered with. Blockchain's decentralized structure ensures that votes are recorded accurately, preventing interference from external actors. In a protected Evoting framework, each vote becomes part of an immutable, distributed ledger, allowing for peer-to-peer validation of transactions. This ensures that each voice counts as the only, unchanging record. The results can be reported immediately as soon as the voting process is completed. Voting is a critical process carried out in democratic societies, usually through secret voting documents or other similar methods. However, traditional voting systems are often plagued by problems such as voting manipulation, low turnout and logistics challenge. To solve these problems, we propose implementation of decentralized voting platforms that offer advanced security, efficiency and confidence in the election process

Suresh Babu Erukala, Dimitar Tokmakov, Anoosha Perumalla, Rajesh Kaluri · 7 authors

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a disruptive technology that underpins Industry 5.0 by integrating various service technologies to enable intelligent connectivity among smart objects. These technologies enhance the convergence of Information Technology (IT), Operational Technology (OT), Core Technology (CT), and Data Technology (DT) networks, improving automation and decision-making capabilities. While cloud computing has become a mainstream technology across multiple domains, it struggles to efficiently manage the massive volume of OT data generated by IoT devices due to high latency, data transfer costs, limited resilience, and insufficient context awareness. Fog computing has emerged as a viable solution, extending cloud capabilities to the edge through a distributed peer-to-peer (P2P) network, enabling decentralized data processing and management. However, IoT networks still face critical challenges, including connectivity, heterogeneity, scalability, interoperability, security, and real-time decision-making constraints. Security is a key challenge in IoT implementations, including secure data communication, IoT edge and fog device identity, end-to-end authentication, and secure storage. This paper presents an efficient blockchain-based framework that creates a secure end-to-end communication cooperative flow IoT network. The framework utilizes a hybrid blockchain network that collaborates to offer a collaborative flow of end-to-end secure communication from end devices to cloud storage. The fog servers will maintain a private blockchain as a next-generation public key infrastructure to identify and authenticate the IoT's edge devices. The consortium blockchain will be maintained in the cloud and integrated with the permission blockchain system. This system ensures secure cloud storage, authorization, efficient key exchange, and remote protection (encryption) of all sensitive information. To improve the synchronization and block generation, reduce overhead, and ensure scalable IoT network operation, we proposed the threshold signature-based Proof of Stake and Validation (PoSV) consensus. Additionally, lightweight authentication protects resource-constrained IoT nodes using an aggregate signature, ensuring security and performance in real-time scenarios. The proposed system is implemented, and its performance is evaluated using key metrics such as cryptographic processing overhead, consensus efficiency, block acceptance time, and transaction delay. The findings show that threshold signature-based Proof of Stake and Validation (PoSV) consensus, reduces the computational burden of individual signature verification, which results in an optimized transaction latency of 80-150 ms, compared to the previous 100-200 ms without Non-PoSV. Additionally, aggregating multiple signatures from different authentication events reduces signing time by 1.98 ms compared to the individual signature time of 2.72 ms and the overhead of verifying multiple individual transactions is 2.87 ms is significantly reduced to1.46 ms along with authentication delay ranges between 95-180 ms. Hence, the proposed framework improves over existing approaches regarding linear computing complexity, increased cryptographic methods, and a more efficient consensus process.

Goshgar Ismayilov

In this work, we address the evolutionary computation in programmable cryptography on blockchain technologies for the first time in the literature. For that, we propose a novel privacy-preserving and decentralized protocol ([email protected]) where the evolutionary computation model is public while the user inputs/outputs (i.e. the current and next populations) are private. The protocol relies on the transitions between the public-domain (i.e. contract-domain) and the private-domain (i.e. evolutionary-domain) to be secure. We perform an experimental study using two popular benchmark problems to measure the blockchain gas consumption, zero-knowledge proof generation/verification times and zero-knowledge proof size.

Hao Yu, Guijuan Wang, Anming Dong, Yubing Han · 6 authors

With the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT), millions of users, devices, and applications compose a complex and heterogeneous network, which increases the complexity of digital identity management. Traditional centralized digital identity management systems (DIMS) confront single points of failure and privacy leakages. The emergence of blockchain technology presents an opportunity for DIMS to handle the single point of failure problem associated with centralized architectures. However, the transparency inherent in blockchain technology still exposes DIMS to privacy leakages. In this paper, we propose the privacy-protected IoT DIMS (PPID), a novel blockchain-based distributed identity system to protect the privacy of on-chain identity data. The PPID achieves the unlinkability of identity-credential-verification. Specifically, the PPID adopts the Zero Knowledge Proof (ZKP) algorithm and Shamir secret sharing (SSS) to safeguard privacy security, resist replay attacks, and ensure data integrity. Finally, we evaluate the performance of ZKP computation in PPID, as well as the transaction fees of smart contract on the Ethereum blockchain.