Abstract In recent years, performance management has become more and more significant in terms of management and credibility of universities. They have to review student performance when issuing diplomas. Therefore, the reliability of student performance management is extremely important. Nowadays, many universities adopt a data-centralized management model. However, centralized database often brings about problems such as information leakage and easy tampering. With the development of blockchain technology, its decentralized and unforgeability characteristics have gradually attracted people’s attention. In order to prevent students’ scores from being maliciously tampered with, we utilize blockchain to design and implement a decentralized student score sharing management system. Moreover, by using the Ethereum smart contract to manage on-chain and off-chain data storage as well as on-chain query and verification, we ensure the traceability, tamper-proof, distributed storage, and the security of query process. Finally, this article explores the construction of prototype system based on the Ethereum environment. The experimental results show that the anti-tampering and traceability scheme proposed in this article is feasible. The application of blockchain can fully satisfy the needs of various participants in student performance management. Each subject’s information has a separate decryption private key, which perfectly protects student’s score information.
Blockchain is considered one of the most disruptive technologies of our time and in the last 2 decades andhas drawn attention from research and industrial communities. Blockchain is basically a distributed ledger with immutable records, mostly utilized to perform the transactions across various nodes after achieving the mutual consensus between all the associated nodes. The consensus protocol is a core component of Blockchain technology, playing a vital role in Blockchain’s success, global emergence, and disruption capability.Many consensus protocols such as PoW, PoS, PoET, etc. have been proposed to make Blockchain more efficient to meet real-time application requirements. However, these protocols have their respective limitations of low throughput and high latency and sacrifice on scalability.These limitations have motivated this research team to introduce a novel review-based consensus protocol called Proof-of-Review, which is aimed to establish an efficient, reliable, and scalable Blockchain. The “review” in the proposed protocol is referring to the community trust on a node, which is entirely depending on the node’s previous behavior within the network which includes the previous transactions and interaction with other nodes. Those reviews eventually become the trust value gained by the node. The more positive the reviews the more trustworthyis the nodeto be considered in the network and vice versa. The most trustworthy node is selected to become the round leader and allows to publish a new block. The architecture of the proposed protocol is based on two parallel chains i.e. Transaction Chain and Review Chain. Both chains are linked to each other. The transaction chain stores the transaction whereas the review chain will store the reviews and be analyzed with an NLP algorithm to find the round leader for the next round.
Shada Alsalamah, Hessah A. Alsalamah, Thamer Nouh, Sara A. Alsalamah
An emerging healthcare delivery model is enabling a new era of clinical care based on well-informed decision-making processes. Current healthcare information systems (HISs) fall short of adopting this model due to a conflict between information security needed to implement the new model and those already enforced locally to support traditional care models. Meanwhile, in recent times, the healthcare sector has shown a substantial interest in the potential of using blockchain technology for providing quality care to patients. No blockchain solution proposed so far has fully addressed emerging cross-organization information-sharing needs in healthcare. In this paper, we aim to study the use of blockchain in equipping struggling HISs to cope with the demands of the new healthcare delivery model, by proposing HealthyBlockchain as a granular patient-centered ledger that digitally tracks a patient’s medical transactions all along the treatment pathway to support the care teams. The patient-centered ledger is a neutral tamper-proof trail time-stamp block sequence that governs distributed patient information across the decentralized discrete HISs. HealthyBlockchain connects patients, clinicians, and healthcare providers to facilitate a transparent, trustworthy, and secure supporting platform.
Mazin Debe, Khaled Salah, Raja Jayaraman, Ibrar Yaqoob · 5 authors
Resource-constrained blockchain clients and the Internet of Things (IoT) devices pose limitations in terms of processing and storing the entire blockchain ledger and mining blocks. Such clients and devices rely on a view of the blockchain provided by full nodes acting as gateways. However, gateway nodes sometimes can provide a distorted view of the blockchain that makes lightweight clients vulnerable to the eclipse attack. When under such an attack, a client cannot differentiate between a forked view of the blockchain and the legitimate blockchain ledger leading to fatal consequences and huge losses incurred. In this paper, we propose a data attestation solution that employs full nodes as validators to attest the responses reported by gateways of lightweight nodes. We leverage smart contracts to give lightweight clients confidence in the data reported as they are unable to validate it from the blockchain network themselves. The system governs the attestation process that comprises submitting attestation requests, approving them, recording the response of validators, and manage payments. Clients can, thereafter, provide their feedback about the validator/gateway performance in the form of a reputation score. We present the proposed system architecture and describe its implementation on the Ethereum blockchain network. We evaluate the proposed solution with respect to functionality testing, cost of execution, and security analysis of the developed smart contracts. We make our smart contracts code and testing scripts publicly available.
The Internet-of-Healthcare Systems is a highly distributed special emulation of the Internet of Things technology. Patient medical data sourced from the participating hospitals are integrated with a decentralized storage system using blockchain technology to provide the highest level of storage and access security possible, overcoming the security and data administration problems that may occur at the local hospital level where the patient data is stored within the hospital’s central server, especially if that data is subjected to external threats. The Internet-of-Healthcare Systems, currently implemented in over 350 hospitals, utilises software agents, accessed using the Message Queueing Telemetry Transport protocol, which efficiently handles potentially thousands of participating local systems without loss of network timeliness. Also, the system works with the wide variety of health information systems used in the participating hospitals. This makes the system a worthwhile candidate for a nationwide integrated health records system, and is an exemplar for many different types of secure networks that could be generically called an Internet of Special Things; a network of software agents programmed for a special purpose. Mobile device apps enable secure direct access to patient data in a central blockchain with download capability to a mobile device, under strict and fully managed access control using Amazon Web Services, with permissions controlled by the Key Management System. Feedback from participating medical staff indicates a high level of satisfaction with all aspects of the system: ease of use, ease of installation, maintenance and update, and, importantly, the security of the system.
Ammar Riadh Kairaldeen, Nor Fadzilah Abdullah, Asma Abu-Samah, Rosdiadee Nordin
Data security is a major issue for smart home networks. Yet, different existing tools and techniques have not been proven highly effective for home networks’ data security. Blockchain is a promising technology because of the distributed computing infrastructure network that makes it difficult for hackers to intrude into the systems through the use of cryptographic signatures and smart contracts. In this paper, an architecture for smart home networks that could guarantee data integrity, robust security, and the ability to protect the validity of the blockchain transactions has been investigated. The system model is tested using various sizes of realistic datasets (30, 3 k, and 30 k to represent a small, medium, and large number of transactions, respectively). Four different consensus algorithms were considered, the conventional schemes concatenated hash transactions (CHT) and Merkle hash tree (MHT), as well as the newly proposed odd and even modified MHT (O&E MHT) and modified MHT (MMHT). Moreover, 15 hash functions were also examined and compared to understand the effects of each consensus algorithms on the data integrity verification check execution time and the time optimization provided by the proposed MMHT algorithm. The results show that even though the CHT algorithm gives the lowest execution time, it is impractical for a blockchain implementation due to the requirement to copy the entire blockchain ledger in real time. Meanwhile, the O&E MHT does not give any tangible benefit in the execution time. However, the proposed MMHT offers a minimum of 30% gain in time optimization than the conventional MHT algorithm typically used in blockchains. This work shows that the proposed MMHT consensus algorithm not only can identify malicious codes but has an improved data integrity check performance in smart homes, all while ensuring network stability.
With the development of artificial intelligence and Internet of Things (IoT), the era of industry 4.0 has come. According to the prediction of IBM, with the continuous popularization of 5G technology, the IoT technology will be more widely used in factories. In recent years, federated learning has become a hot topic for Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) researchers. However, many devices in the IIoT currently have a problem of low computing power, so these devices cannot perform well facing the tasks of training and updating models in federated learning. In order to solve the above problems, we introduce edge computing into the IIot, so that the device can complete the federated learning operation. In order to ensure the security of data transmission, blockchain is introduced as the main algorithm of equipment authentication in the system. What's more, in order to increase the efficiency and versatility of training model in IIoT, we introduce transfer learning to improve the system performance. The experimental results show that our algorithm can achieve high security and high training accuracy.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a new revolution defined by heterogeneous devices made up of intelligent, omnipresent items that are all hooked up to The internet. These devices are frequently implemented in different areas to offer innovative programs in various industrial applications, including intelligent urban, medicine, and societies. Such Internet of Things (IoT) equipment generates a large volume of private and safety information. Because IoT systems are resource‐constrained in terms of operation, memory, and communication capability, safeguarding accessibility to them is a difficult task. In the blockchain concept, the majority, or even all network nodes, check the validity and accuracy of exchanged data before accepting and recording it, whether this data is related to financial transactions, measurements of a sensor, or an authentication message. In evaluating the validity of exchanged data, nodes must reach a consensus in order to perform a special action, in which case the opportunity to enter and record transactions and unreliable interactions with the system is significantly reduced. Recently, in order to share and access management of IoT devices’ information with a distributed attitude, a new authentication protocol based on blockchain has been proposed, and it is claimed that this protocol satisfies user privacy while preserving security. Today’s identification and authentication techniques have substantial shortcomings due to rapidly growing prevalence and implementation. As a result, the protection of such gadgets is critical to guarantee the program’s efficacy and safety. A decentralized authentication and access control method for lightweight IoT systems are proposed in this work and a blockchain‐based system that enables identification and secures messaging with IoT nodes. The technique is built on fog information systems and the idea of a blockchain system; when contrasted to something like a blockchain‐based verification system, the testing findings show that the suggested mechanism outperforms it. The authentication and verification system undergoes using the blockchain technique. Our method takes advantage of blockchain’s inherent advantages while also associated with development authentication systems. Our suggested blockchain‐based approach, structure, and layout, in particular, provide for transparency, consistency, and provenance while also providing tamper‐proof records. The article describes the general systems architectural style and the analysis and execution of a real scenario as just a prototype system. The authentication included give as protected prototype that can transmit data with secured protocol and achieves minimum error rate.
Aleksandr Ometov, Krystof Zeman, Pavel Mašek, Lukas Balazevic · 5 authors
With technology evolving rapidly and proliferating, it is imperative to pay attention to mobile devices’ security being currently responsible for various sensitive data processing. This phase is essential as an intermediate before the cloud or distributed ledger storage delivery and should be considered additional care due to its inevitability. This paper analyzes the security mechanisms applied for internal use in the Android OS and the communication between the Android OS and the remote server. Presented work aims to examine these mechanisms and evaluate which cryptographic methods and procedures are most advantageous in terms of energy efficiency derived from execution time. Nonetheless, the dataset with the measurements collected from 17 mobile devices and the code for reproducibility is also provided. After analyzing the collected data, specific cryptographic algorithms are recommended to implement an application that utilizes native cryptographic operations on modern Android devices. In particular, selected algorithms for symmetric encryption are AES256 / GCM / No Padding; for digital signature – SHA512 with RSA2048 / PSS, and for asymmetric encryption – RSA3072 / OAEP with SHA512 and MGF1 Padding.
The Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) is the amalgamation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods and the Internet of Things (IoT) infrastructure, which are deployed there to improve the overall performance of the system. AIoT can be deployed to achieve more efficient IoT operations; thereby can improve human‐machine interactions and provide better data analysis. AI methods can be used to transform IoT data into useful information for the better decision‐making processes, and it further increases the overall usability of the system. AIoT frameworks are very useful and applicable in a variety of applications, like security and surveillance system, smart home, intelligent transportation system, smart farming, secure and safe healthcare monitoring, industrial automation and control, eCommerce, logistics operations and control, and many more. However, AIoT frameworks may have issues related to data security and privacy as they are vulnerable to various types of information security‐related attacks. These issues further cause the serious consequences, like the unauthorized data leakage and data update. Blockchain is a specific type of database. It is a digital ledger of transactions, which is duplicated and distributed across the entire network of computer systems. It stores data in the form of some blocks, which are then chained together. Blockchain is tamper proof and provides more security as compared to the traditional security mechanisms. Hence, blockchain can be integrated in various AIoT applications to provide more security. A generalized blockchain‐envisioned secure authentication framework for AIoT has been proposed. The adversary model of blockchain‐envisioned secure authentication framework for AIoT is also highlighted that covers most of the potential threats of a kind of communication environment. Various applications of the proposed framework are also discussed. Furthermore, different issues and challenges of the proposed framework are highlighted. In the end, we also provide some future research directions relevant to the proposed framework.
Due to the cheap price and decent performance of used cars, the second‐hand vehicle market is quite active in Taiwan. However, the vehicle information in the market of second‐hand vehicles is centralized at present. In other words, the vehicle information is still provided by the second‐hand vehicle dealers, which are not transparent and have no tampering cost. As the result, the authenticity, accuracy, and fairness of these second‐hand vehicle data are worth discussing. To solve the above problems, this paper proposed a trusted vehicle data source system based on blockchain technology. The system is built on the Ethereum platform with the private chain structure. With the help of our platform, a trusted third party (e.g., maintenance plant and government branch) can record vehicle information into Blockchain so the integrity of vehicle information can be maintained. Customers can easily query the relevant vehicle information through our system interface and avoid receiving fake vehicle information. This system is a Proof of Concept (PoC), and the feasibility is examined by evaluating transactions per second (TPS) of the proposed system.
Hyper-connectivity in Industry 4.0 has resulted in not only a rapid increase in the amount of information, but also the expansion of areas and assets to be protected. In terms of information security, it has led to an enormous economic cost due to the various and numerous security solutions used in protecting the increased assets. Also, it has caused difficulties in managing those issues due to reasons such as mutual interference, countless security events and logs’ data, etc. Within this security environment, an organization should identify and classify assets based on the value of data and their security perspective, and then apply appropriate protection measures according to the assets’ security classification for effective security management. But there are still difficulties stemming from the need to manage numerous security solutions in order to protect the classified assets. In this paper, we propose an information classification management service based on blockchain, which presents and uses a model of the value of data and the security perspective. It records transactions of classifying assets and managing assets by each class in a distributed ledger of blockchain. The proposed service reduces assets to be protected and security solutions to be applied, and provides security measures at the platform level rather than individual security solutions, by using blockchain. In the rapidly changing security environment of Industry 4.0, this proposed service enables economic security, provides a new integrated security platform, and demonstrates service value.
Shahid Abbas, Nadeem Javaid, Ahmad Almogren, Sardar Muhammad Gulfam · 6 authors
Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging domain in which different devices communicate with each other through minimum human intervention. IoT devices are usually operated in hostile and unattended environments. Moreover, routing in current IoT architecture becomes inefficient due to malicious and unauthenticated nodes’ existence, minimum network lifetime, insecure routing, etc. This paper proposes a lightweight blockchain based authentication mechanism where ordinary sensors’ credentials are stored. As IoT nodes have a short lifespan due to energy depletion, few credentials are stored in the blockchain to achieve lightweight authentication. Moreover, the route calculation is performed by a genetic algorithm enabled software defined network controller, which is also used for on-demand routing to optimize the energy consumption of the nodes in the IoT network. Furthermore, a route correctness mechanism is proposed to check the existence of malicious nodes in the calculated route. Moreover, a detection mechanism is proposed to restrict the malicious nodes’ activities, while a malicious node’s list is maintained in the blockchain, which is used in the route correctness mechanism. The proposed model is evaluated by performing intensive simulations. The effectiveness of the proposed model is depicted in terms of gas consumption, which shows the optimized utilization of resources. The residual energy of the network shows optimized route calculation, while the malicious node detection method shows the number of packets dropped.
Carlos Núñez‐Gómez, Blanca Caminero, Carmen Carrión
Nowadays, the fog computing paradigm is being consolidated as a solution for processing the explosion of data generated by lots of common IoT devices connected to the Internet. In contrast to cloud computing, fog computing achieves efficient data processing without incurring large latencies or data transfers to/from the cloud. The distributed nature of fog computing makes the resource orchestration a challenge. Commonly used centralized solutions are of limited utility in this context. Moreover, fog nodes are usually resource constrained, so the implementation of the management modules should be carefully designed in order not to cause excessive overheads. On the other hand, blockchain has proven its utility beyond cryptocurrencies, to support distributed and reliable information storage. When combined with smart contracts it can provide a distributed computer where all the nodes independently and equally contribute to a common global system state, which must be agreed by consensus. This also provides inherent desirable features, such as immutability and transparency. In this work, a novel architecture called HIDRA is presented, aimed at resource orchestration in fog computing environments based on a Ethereum blockchain implementation. A prototype implementation on a testbed composed of single-board computers has been carried out. Results show the low overhead introduced into the system and its ability to perform a coordinated action among fog nodes without the intervention of any central authority.
Mobile application integrated with cryptocurrency would be an innovative solution for making medicine purchase in the future. This research work fixates on the design and implementation of a crypto pharmacy - digital medicine utilizing hybrid blockchain technology. We present the concept of crypto medicine that eliminates third-party presence (buy/sell) in a medicine purchase. The proposed design integrates the mobile application with the NEM blockchain. The manufacturer engenders the digital medicines with NEM blockchain namespace, all the pharma products are assigned with NEM cryptocurrency XEM, labeled with a QR code. Our archetype model (perspicacious detector) executes the astute contract that connects all the stakeholders in a pharma supply chain. The proposed mobile application has been prosperously integrated with NEM cryptocurrency by assigning XEM for the medicines, all the transactions are monitored in a blockchain from manufacturer to culminate-utilizer. The mobile application designed utilizing apple iOS integrated with nem2sdk swift framework. This system evades a few millions worth of substandard medicine integrated in the ecumenical market every year. In additament to crypto medicine, the genuine-time monitoring of liquid medicine has been tested with the IoT platform. It fetches the temperature data into the blockchain and authenticates the reliability of medicine for intensive care unit patients.
Daniel Mago Vistro, Muhammad Shoaib Farooq, Attique Ur Rehman, Saroosh Malik
Blockchain emerges as a potential platform aim of providing efficient and robust infrastructure and the centre of the blockchain is the consensus protocol feature that shows the working of distributed ledger technology named the blockchain. However, existing blockchain systems do not satisfy the requirement of the transaction in pragmatic use due to their limited capacity. While several new ideas were suggested by experts as they faced either decentralization or security concerns. Although several scientists are working on the improvement of the new quantum-resistant, faulttolerant protocol, resource-efficient, and others focus on the development of multiple protocol versions, better adapted for particular use cases. Many researcher-made their own protocol to secure their work, instead of using traditional protocols. The paper represents a systematic literature review by accompanying a survey of blockchain technologies and their current utilization in different application domains in the IT industry. In this article, we first describe some previous and current consensus protocols of blockchain with the help of taxonomy which includes types and variants of protocols. Secondly, we have selected the most used protocols used up till now and write a comparative analysis with systematic review to find out which approach is the best suitable to use Lastly, we have analysed the strength and weaknesses of existing and previous protocols.
Haya R. Hasan, Khaled Salah, Raja Jayaraman, Ibrar Yaqoob · 6 authors
Contact tracing has widely been adopted to control the spread of Coronavirus-2019 (COVID-19). It enables to identify, assess, and manage people who have been exposed to COVID-19, thereby preventing from its further transmission. Today's most of the contact tracing approaches, tools, and solutions fall short in providing decentralized, transparent, traceable, immutable, auditable, secure, and trustworthy features. In this paper, we propose a decentralized blockchain-based COVID-19 contact tracing solution. Contact tracing can greatly suffice the need for a speedy response to a pandemic. We leverage the immutable and tamper-proof features of blockchain to enforce trust, accountability, and transparency. Trusted and registered oracles are used to bridge the gap between on-chain and off-chain data. With no third parties involved or centralized servers, the users' medical information is not prone to invasion, hacking, or abuse. Each user is registered using their digital medical passports. To respect the privacy of the users, their locations are updated with a time delay of 20 minutes. Using Ethereum smart contracts, transactions are executed on-chain with emitted events and immutable logs. We present details of the implemented algorithms and their testing analysis. We evaluate the proposed approach using security, cost, and privacy parameters to show its effectiveness. The smart contracts code is publicly made available on GitHub.
In recent years Fifth Generation (5G) technology is the most recent advancement in a wireless communication network. There is the advent of using the 5G with diverse data structures. The Blockchain (BC) has become an approving adoption for decentralized, peer-to-peer, distributed transparent ledger systems with a diverse data structure. The use of 5G with BC is an emerging trend in communication technology. The elasticity of 5G with BC enables many applications to reciprocity information molds it a fast, transparent, consequential, and safe for transportation of data in this smart era. Green computing (GC) is presently the intense optimistic tactic for the integration of smart technology in a diverse and distributed world of power consumption. This Systematic Mapping Study (SMS) has been analyzed by cautiously elected publications between 2016 and 2020 in well-putative venus. This study analyzed the advanced research on power consumption solutions for BC-based 5G communication, Moreover, a taxonomy of 5G based on green BC and GC in various areas is presented. Furthermore, Green energy renewable communication (GERC) problems are being observed in this research by integrating three discrete technologies such as 5G with green BC and GC also along with smart systems. Lastly, the research gaps had been bestowed to render future directions for the researchers in 5G with green BC and GC as the solution for rechargeable data packets.
The revolutionary technology blockchain began with cryptocurrencies like bitcoin but has since expanded beyond the worlds of finance and banking. One relatively unexplored application domain is medical and water waste. The production of medical/water waste is an integral part of healthcare operations. However, Health care and water waste management methods can also pose a health and environment risk if the various steps in the management process are not carried out correctly. The objective of this paper is to propose conception of a system, based on the Blockchain and IoT, that ensures the control of these wastes in order to effectively manage, coordinate and monitor their disposal. An initial design of this system and an evaluation of the system's performance are also presented.
At present, the traditional blockchain for data storage and retrieval reflects the characteristics of slow data uploading speed, high cost, and transparency, and there are a lot of corresponding problems, such as not supporting private data storage, large data operation costs, and not supporting Data field query. This paper proposes a method of data encryption storage and retrieval based on the IOTA distributed ledger, combined with the fast transaction processing speed and zero-value transactions of the IOTA blockchain, through the Masked Authenticated Messaging technology, so that the data is encrypted in the data stream. The form is stored in the distributed ledger, quickly retrieved through the field index mechanism established by the data form, and the data operation is carried out on the chain. Experimental results show that this system has high storage, encryption and retrieval performance, and good practicability.
Nowadays, the blockchain, Internet of Things, and artificial intelligence technology revolutionize the traditional way of data mining with the enhanced data preprocessing, and analytics approaches, including improved service platforms. Nevertheless, one of the main challenges is designing a combined approach that provides the analytics functionality for diverse data and sustains IoT applications with robust and modular blockchain-enabled services in a diverse environment. Improved data analytics model not only provides support insights in IoT data but also fosters process productivity. Designing a robust IoT-based secure analytic model is challenging for several purposes, such as data from diverse sources, increasing data size, and monolithic service designing techniques. This article proposed an intelligent blockchain-enabled microservice to support predictive analytics for personalized fitness data in an IoT environment. The designed system support microservice-based analytic functionalities to provide secure and reliable services for IoT. To demonstrate the proposed model effectiveness, we have used the IoT fitness application as a case study. Based on the designed predictive analytic model, a recommendation model is developed to recommend daily and weekly diet and workout plans for improved body fitness. Moreover, the recommendation model objective is to help trainers make future health decisions of trainees in terms of workout and diet plan. Finally, the proposed model is evaluated using Hyperledger Caliper in terms of latency, throughput, and resource utilization with varying peers and orderer nodes. The experimental result shows that the proposed model is applicable for diverse resource-constrained blockchain-enabled IoT applications and extensible for several IoT scenarios.
Lakshmana Kumar Ramasamy, Firoz Khan, Agbotiname Lucky Imoize, Joshua O. Ogbebor · 6 authors
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are broadly applied for various applications in tracking and surveillance due to their ease of use and other distinctive characteristics compelled by real-time cooperation among the sensor nodes. In WSNs, security is becoming a critical issue, as the techniques for malicious node detection adopt a one-time, centralized decision-making approach. With this paradigm, errors are difficult to avoid, and reproducibility and traceability are challenging. Hence, malicious node discovery technologies in conventional WSNs cannot assure traceability and fairness of the detection method. Herein, this paper discusses an in-depth survey of a blockchain-based approach for malicious node detection, an exhaustive examination of the integration of blockchain techniques with WSNs (BWSN), and insights into this novel concept. This survey discusses the architecture, sector-wise applications, and uses of BWSN. Moreover, this survey describes malicious node detection based on BWSN in two parts: 1) the BWSN architecture for detecting the malicious nodes and 2) the smart contract aspects in malicious node detection. Next, this survey explains the contributions of blockchain for WSN data management, which involves online information aggregation and may include auditing, event logs, and storage for information analysis and offline query processing. This survey first presents the conventional WSN solutions then the blockchain-based WSN solutions for data management. Additionally, this survey discusses the contributions of blockchain for WSN security management. It first examines the centralized WSN models for security problems, followed by a discussion of the blockchain-based WSN solutions for security management, such as offering access control, preserving information integrity, guaranteeing privacy, and ensuring WSNs’ node longevity.
With the development of advanced information and communication technology, the traditional centralized service model alone no longer meets the increasing demand of data exchange in intelligent transportation systems (ITS). While Internet of Vehicles (IoV) technology has been introduced to achieve more advanced ITS, there are still some unsettled issues such as flexibility and fault tolerance. The conventional centralized approach for ITS is vulnerable to the single point of failure, and lack of flexibility due to its dependence on a trusted third party (TTP). The emergence of blockchain technology provides a potential direction to address these problems. However, due to varying vehicle densities, it is challenging to select the best blockchain parameters to satisfy the application requirements. In this paper, we propose a multi-channel blockchain scheme that can use the best parameters in accordance with the vehicle density. The proposed scheme first defines multiple blockchain channels where each channel is optimized for a certain vehicle density level. Then, the system selects the best channel according to the vehicle density, and the application requirements on the transaction throughput and latency. We use extensive simulations to show that the proposed blockchain scheme achieves a significantly better performance as compared with existing baselines.