Blockchain Papers

Vinay Gugueoth, Sunitha Safavat, Sachin Shetty, Danda B. Rawat

IoT security is one of the prominent issues that has gained significant attention among the researchers in recent times. The recent advancements in IoT introduces various critical security issues and increases the risk of privacy leakage of IoT data. Implementation of Blockchain can be a potential solution for the security issues in IoT. This review deeply investigates the security threats and issues in IoT which deteriorates the effectiveness of IoT systems. This paper presents a perceptible description of the security threats, Blockchain based solutions, security characteristics and challenges introduced during the integration of Blockchain with IoT. An analysis of different consensus protocols, existing security techniques and evaluation parameters are discussed in brief. In addition, the paper also outlines the open issues and highlights possible research opportunities which can be beneficial for future research.

Goshgar Ismayilov, Can Özturan

Blockchains are decentralized and immutable databases that are shared among the nodes of the network. Although blockchains have attracted a great scale of attention in the recent years by disrupting the traditional financial systems, the transaction privacy is still a challenging issue that needs to be addressed and analysed. We propose a Private Token Transfer System (PTTS) for the Ethereum public blockchain in the first part of this paper. For the proposed framework, zero-knowledge based protocol has been designed using Zokrates and integrated into our private token smart contract. With the help of web user interface designed, the end users can interact with the smart contract without any third-party setup. In the second part of the paper, we provide security and privacy analysis including the replay attack and the balance range privacy attack which has been modelled as a network flow problem. It is shown that in case some balance ranges are deliberately leaked out to particular organizations or adversial entities, it is possible to extract meaningful information about the user balances by employing minimum cost flow network algorithms that have polynomial complexity. The experimental study reports the Ethereum gas consumption and proof generation times for the proposed framework. It also reports network solution times and goodness rates for a subset of addresses under the balance range privacy attack with respect to number of addresses, number of transactions and ratio of leaked transfer transaction amounts.

Kasun Moolika Gedara, Minh Nguyen, Weiqi Yan, Xue Jun Li

In this paper, we explore video blockchain for establishing connectivity among vehicles in a smart city through utilizing blockchain technology. By leveraging intelligent vehicular systems that provide location-based visualization through multiple deployed cameras in vehicles, we expand the scope of collecting video surveillance data for observation, thereby enhancing overall situational awareness. We utilize the decentralized nature of blockchain to implement a vehicle-based surveillance system across a smart city. To ensure reliability, the integration of two cryptographic functions, hashing and signing, with the blockchain is employed. This integration ensures secure and tamper-proof solutions for the existing intelligent surveillance system. In this paper, our primary focus is on combining blockchain technology to achieve sustainable and robust smart solutions for intelligent vehicular distributed video networks while eliminating the need for third-party intermediaries. Through extensive experiments and analysis, we demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of our proposed video blockchain approach. The results indicate that this innovative framework provides enhanced security, privacy, and scalability for intelligent vehicular distributed networks in smart cities, paving the way for a connected and efficient urban environment.

Xin Liu, Ruxue Wang, Dan Luo, Gang Xu · 7 authors

With the development of deep learning, the demand for similarity matching between texts in text classification is becoming increasingly high. How to match texts quickly under the premise of keeping private information secure has become a research hotspot. However, most existing protocols currently have full set limitations, and the applicability of these methods is limited when the data size is large and scattered. Therefore, this paper applies the secure vector calculation method for text similarity matching in the case of data without any complete set constraints, and it designs a secure computation protocol of text similarity (SCTS) based on the semi-honest model. At the same time, elliptic-curve cryptography technology is used to greatly improve the execution efficiency of the protocol. In addition, we also analyzed the possibility of the malicious behavior of participants in the semi-honest-model protocol, and further designed an SCTS protocol suitable for the malicious model using the cut-and-choose and zero-knowledge-proof methods. By proposing a security mechanism, this protocol aims to provide a reliable and secure computing solution that can effectively prevent malicious attacks and interference. Finally, through the analysis of the efficiencies of the existing protocols, the efficiencies of the protocols under the malicious model are further verified, and the practical value for text classification in deep learning is demonstrated.

Daniel Melero Martinez, Mohammed El‐Hajj

In recent years, music streaming has emerged as the primary method for users to enjoy their favorite songs. Music Streaming Services (MSS) have risen to become influential entities in the music industry, exemplified by Spotify’s impressive 406 million monthly active users by the end of 2021. However, many artists express concerns that the current MSS model fails to adequately compensate them for their music, raising questions about fairness. To tackle this issue, this paper proposes the implementation of IOTA-MSS, a Pay-per-Play Music Streaming System that leverages the secure and scalable IOTA distributed ledger technology (DLT). By harnessing the capabilities of IOTA’s DLT, IOTA-MSS offers a platform that enables seamless microtransactions. This innovative system empowers users to play and distribute music in real-time while ensuring that rights holders receive corresponding payments. Through the utilization of IOTA’s DLT, IOTA-MSS addresses the challenges faced by artists, providing a more equitable solution for music compensation. By adopting a Pay-per-Play model, this system aligns artist remuneration with the actual usage and popularity of their music. Furthermore, IOTA-MSS enhances the user experience, offering a secure and efficient platform for music enthusiasts to engage with their favorite tunes.

Yathin Kethepalli, Rony Joseph, Sai Raja Vajrala, Jashwanth Vemula · 5 authors

Crypto-wallets or digital asset wallets are a crucial aspect of managing cryptocurrencies and other digital assets such as NFTs. However, these wallets are not immune to security threats, particularly from the growing risk of quantum computing. The use of traditional public-key cryptography systems in digital asset wallets makes them vulnerable to attacks from quantum computers, which may increase in the future. Moreover, current digital wallets require users to keep track of seed-phrases, which can be challenging and lead to additional security risks. To overcome these challenges, a new algorithm is proposed that uses post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) to enhance the security of digital asset wallets. The research focuses on the use of the Lattice-based Threshold Secret Sharing Scheme (LTSSS), Kyber Algorithm for key generation and ZKP for wallet unlocking, providing a more secure and user-friendly alternative to seed-phrase, brain and multi-sig protocol wallets. This algorithm also includes several innovative security features such as recovery of wallets in case of downtime of the server, and the ability to rekey the private key associated with a specific username-password combination, offering improved security and usability. The incorporation of PQC and ZKP provides a robust and comprehensive framework for securing digital assets in the present and future. This research aims to address the security challenges faced by digital asset wallets and proposes practical solutions to ensure their safety in the era of quantum computing.

Abhay Pratap Singh, A. Sri Ganesh, Rutuja Rajendra Patil, Sumit Kumar · 6 authors

Voting is a democratic process that allows individuals to choose their leaders and voice their opinions. However, the current situation with physical voting involves long queues, paper-based ballots, and security challenges. Blockchain-based voting models have appeared as a method to address the limitations of traditional voting methods. As blockchain is distributed and decentralized, which uses hash functions for securing transactions, it dramatically improves the existing voting system. These digital platforms eliminate the need for physical presence, reduce paperwork, and ensure the integrity of votes through transparent and tamper-proof blockchain technology. This paper introduces a blockchain-based voting model to enhance accessibility, security, and efficiency in the voting process. The research focuses on developing a robust and user-friendly voting system by leveraging the advantages of decentralized technology. The proposed model employs Ethereum as the underlying blockchain platform through an innovative and iterative approach. The model uses Smart contracts to record and validate votes, while AI-based facial recognition technology is integrated to verify the identity of voters. Rigorous testing and analysis are conducted to validate the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed blockchain-based voting model. The system underwent extensive simulation scenarios and stress tests to evaluate its performance, security, and usability.

Mila Dalla Preda, Francesco Masaia

Blockchain technology has brought notable advancements to diverse industries. The introduction of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) has particularly led to a lucrative market for unique digital asset ownership verification, including digital artworks. However, this trend has also given rise to concerns such as fraud, stolen works, authenticity, and copyright issues. Illicit traders exploit the market by trading unauthorized copies of digital objects as NFTs. In this study, we propose the use of digital watermarking as a means to establish the authenticity of NFTs and enhance the marketplace’s credibility.

Anand N. Patil, Sujata V. Mallapur

<p>Adaptive transport technologies based on vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET) has proven considerable potential in light of the developing expansion of driver assistance and automobile telecommunication systems. However, confidentiality and safety are the vital challenges in vehicular ad hoc networks which could be seriously impaired by malicious attackers. While protecting vehicle privacy from threats, it is imperative to stop internal vehicles from putting out bogus messages. Considering these issues, a novel machine learning based message authentication combined with blockchain and inter planetary file system (IPFS) is proposed to achieve message dissemination in a secured way. Blockchain is the emerging technology which attempts to solve these problems by producing tamper proof events of records in a distributed environment and inter planetary file system used in the framework is a protocol designed to store the event with content addressability. Along with this combined technology, the source metadata information collected from the inter planetary file system is stored via a smart contract and uploaded to the distributed ledger technology (DLT). For performing event authentication, K-means clustering and support vector machine (SVM) classifier is employed in this framework. K-means clustering performs clustering of vehicles and it is marked malicious or not malicious. After clustering, support vector machine classifier detects the malicious event messages. By this way, the malicious messages are identified and it is dropped. Only the secure messages are forwarded in the network. Finally, our approach is capable of creating a safe and decentralized vehicular ad hoc network architecture with accountability and confidentiality through theoretical study and simulations.</p>

S Sultana, Ch. Rupa, R. Pavana Malleswari, Thippa Reddy Gadekallu

In the digital age, ensuring the authenticity and security of academic certificates is a critical challenge faced by educational institutions, employers, and individuals alike. Traditional methods for verifying academic credentials are often cumbersome, time-consuming, and susceptible to fraud. However, the emergence of blockchain technology offers a promising solution to address these issues. The proposed system utilizes a blockchain network, where each academic certificate is stored as a digital asset on the blockchain. These digital certificates are cryptographically secured, timestamped, and associated with unique identifiers, such as hashes or public keys, ensuring their integrity and immutability. Anyone with access to the blockchain network can verify a certificate’s authenticity, using the MetaMask extension and Ethereum network, eliminating the need for intermediaries and reducing the risk of fraudulent credentials. The main strength of the paper is that the data that are stored in the blockchain are unique identifiers of the encrypted data, which is encrypted by using an encryption technique that provides more security to the academic certificates. Furthermore, IPFS is also used to store large amounts of encrypted data.

Jorge Ceron, Cristian Tinipuclla, Pedro Shiguihara-Juárez

Blockchain has become an important alternative in plenty of industries due to its features such as traceability, transparency and data integrity. Blockchain is not only present in the management of structured data-like names, timestamps, addresses and so on, but also in the management of unstructured data such as videos or images. In the present work, we focus on videos because nowadays, they are potentially exposed to be modified or altered from plenty of sources and platforms. However, we found that there are hardly any surveys or systematic literature reviews containing applications of both blockchain and integrity of videos. Thus, in this survey, we state a literature review for primary articles about the use of blockchain for video integrity to update and provide a better comprehension about this topic. As results, we encountered Ethereum and internet of vehicles as the largest underlying blockchain and field of application, respectively. At the end, we explain our findings about blockchains for video integrity and why it is an emerging topic.

Akoramurthy Balasubramaniam, B. Surendiran

Due to certain unique qualities and capabilities, Blockchain is a highly beneficial approach that may be used to safely manage various gadgets in a smart city. It has several uses, particularly in dispersed situations where elements such as wireless sensor nodes must be confident of the server's legitimacy. Because modern blockchain solutions that handle post-quantum problems have not been developed, we explore a blockchain in the quantum-resistant cryptography context and strive to find how it might withstand quantum computing assaults throughout this work. Furthermore, the newly born Proof of Stake (PoS) provides faster and cheaper transactions, but its security is not proven in comparison to its forefather Proof of Work (PoW). As a result, a new quantum-resistant proof of stake (Quantum-Resistant PoS) agreement technique for smart city application services has been developed. The proposed model has the ability to protect a distributed ledger system against a quantum assault and also provides scalability and inexpensive transactions. Additionally, user-based post-quantum authentication is included in the transaction process to create a simple payment verification node. Following that, we present a detailed rundown of how to execute a post-quantum simple payment verification and transaction on a blockchain. Thus, our study will contribute to imminent quantum-resistant blockchain exploration along with the design or structure of potentially distributed ledger technology-based ubiquitous computing.

Jinsheng Yang, Wencong Jia, Zhen Gao, Zhaohui Guo · 6 authors

As the distributed ledger technology underlying cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, blockchain has empowered various industries, such as supply chain management, healthcare, government services, e-voting, etc. However, the ever-growing ledger on each node has been the main bottleneck for blockchain scalability as the network scale expands, which worsens in blockchain-enabled IoT scenarios with resource-limited devices. With the support of the Reed–Solomon (RS) code, the Cuckoo-Store (CS), a ledger storage optimization engine, is proposed in this paper to dramatically decrease the storage burden on each node by encoding the ledger as data segments with redundancy and distributing them to multiple nodes. These distributed data segments can be collected and decoded using RS code to recover the original ledger. Furthermore, the Cuckoo filter (CF) is used to guarantee the integrity of the encoded segments, which helps detect the forged segments and facilitates the process of ledger recovery. Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that the CS engine can decrease the storage in each node by more than 94%, and the original ledger can be recovered efficiently with acceptable communication overheads.

Philipp Schmid, Alisa Schaffhäuser, Rasha Kashef

The networks on a centralized cloud architecture that interconnect Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets are not limited by national or jurisdictional borders. To ensure the secure sharing of sensitive user data among IoT gadgets, it is imperative to maintain security, resilience and trustless authentication. As a result, blockchain technology has become a viable option to provide such noteworthy characteristics. Blockchain technology is foundational for resolving many IoT security and privacy issues. Blockchain’s safe decentralization can solve the IoT ecosystem’s security, authentication and maintenance constraints. However, blockchain, like any innovation, has drawbacks, mainly when used in crucial IoT systems such as programmable logic controller (PLC) networks. This paper addresses the most recent security and privacy issues relating to the IoT, including the perception, network and application layers of the IoT’s tiered architecture. The key focus is to review the existing IoT security and privacy concerns and how blockchain might be used to deal with these problems. This paper proposes a novel approach focusing on IoT capabilities and PLC device security. The new model will incorporate a proof-of-work-based blockchain into the (PLC) IoT ecosystem. This blockchain enables the transmission of binary data and the data logging of the (PLC) networks’ signals. This novel technique uses fewer resources than other sophisticated methods in that PLC devices communicate data while maintaining a high transmission, encryption and decoding speed. In addition to ensuring repeatability, our new model addresses the memory and tracing problems that different PLC manufacturers encounter.

Yang Zhang, Yu Tang, Chaoyang Li, Hua Zhang

Abstract Blockchain-enabled cold-chain logistics system (BCCLS) has well solved the centralized problem in traditional systems. However, along with that different logistics entities establish their own distributed blockchain ledger, which brings new “data island” and privacy leakage problems for BCCLS. In this paper, a transaction ring signing model with a multi-chain fusion mechanism has been introduced first which helps to achieve secure cross-chain data sharing. Meanwhile, a ring signature (RS) scheme is proposed with lattice assumption, which can protect the user privacy and cross-chain transactions. The lattice hard problem improves the anti-quantum security of the transaction ring signing model. Then, the security proof has been executed with random oracle model, and the results show that this RS scheme can get anonymity under full key exposure and unforgeability under insider attack. The efficiency comparison and performance evaluation show the efficiency and practical of the proposed multi-chain fusion model and RS scheme.

Runde Yu, Zhuowen LI, Zhe CHEN, Gangyi Ding

In order to solve the problems of copyrights infringement, high cost and complex process of rights protection in current media convergence center, a digital rights management system based on blockchain technology and IPFS (Inter Planetary File System) technology is proposed. Considering that large files such as video and audio cannot be stored on the blockchain directly, IPFS technology is adopted as the data expansion scheme for the data storage layer of the Ethereum platform, IPFS protocol is further used for distributed data storage and transmission of media content. In addition, smart contract is also used to uniquely identify digital rights through NFT (Non-fungible Tokens), which provides the characteristics of digital rights transferability and traceability, and realizes an open, transparent, tamper-proof and traceable digital rights management system for media convergence center. Several experimental results show that it has higher transaction success rate, lower storage consumption and transaction confirmation delay than existing scheme.

B. Wu

This article discusses Ethereum Ghost Protocol, a technology that promises faster mining speeds. The Ghost protocol enables different crypto miners to create valid blocks concurrently. The article explains why the protocol reduces the delay in traditional blockchains through stale or uncle blocks. It explains why the Ghost Protocol is faster than Bitcoin. It also introduces areas in which Ethereum Ghost Protocol can work, such as insecure environments and Internet of Things (IoT). Besides, the paper defines centralization bias and explains how the Ghost Protocol solves the problem. Since the Ghost Protocol is decentralized and stores information in multiple nodes, it is more secure. Besides, it is scalable and saves storage space. Despite these benefits, this paper discusses two significant challenges, including slow transactions and difficulties in coding. However, the Ghost protocol will enhance cryptocurrency due to the ease of mining, enhanced security, and other benefits to miners. Overall, the paper suggests the need to embrace the Ghost protocol in the blockchain.

Yimika Erinle, Yathin Kethepalli, Yebo Feng, Jiahua Xu

With the advent of decentralised digital currencies powered by blockchain technology, a new era of peer-to-peer transactions has commenced. The rapid growth of the cryptocurrency economy has led to increased use of transaction-enabling wallets, making them a focal point for security risks. As the frequency of wallet-related incidents rises, there is a critical need for a systematic approach to measure and evaluate these attacks, drawing lessons from past incidents to enhance wallet security. In response, we introduce a multi-dimensional design taxonomy for existing and novel wallets with various design decisions. We classify existing industry wallets based on this taxonomy, identify previously occurring vulnerabilities and discuss the security implications of design decisions. We also systematise threats to the wallet mechanism and analyse the adversary's goals, capabilities and required knowledge. We present a multi-layered attack framework and investigate 84 incidents between 2012 and 2024, accounting for $5.4B. Following this, we classify defence implementations for these attacks on the precautionary and remedial axes. We map the mechanism and design decisions to vulnerabilities, attacks, and possible defence methods to discuss various insights.

Gyu Chol Kim, Gang Han, Ryong Chol Kim, Yong Bok Jong · 7 authors

We propose a single-tiered hybrid proof-of-work consensus protocol to encourage decentralization in bitcoin. Our new mechanism comprises coupled puzzles from which properties differ from each other; the one is the extant outsourceable bitcoin puzzle while the other is nonoutsourceable. Our new protocol enables miners to solve either puzzle as they want; therefore, blocks can be generated by either puzzle. Our hybrid consensus can be successfully implemented in bitcoin because it is backward-compatible with existing bitcoin mining equipment (more precisely, existing bitcoin mining ASICs).

Jalpa Khamar, Hiren Patel

Blockchain is a decentralized transaction and data management technology first developed for the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. Blockchain technology is gaining popularity due to its core attributes which provides security, anonymity and data integrity without any involvement of third party. Consensus mechanism is a procedure by which all peers in the blockchain network agrees to a common agreement on the current state of the distributed ledger. It plays vital role in increasing efficiency of any blockchain environment. Though we have many consensus mechanisms working currently in different areas but they still lack in parameters like status of validators, latency, node failure etc. In Our proposed algorithm Proof of credibility, we have tried to incorporate all above factors in it. We have also implemented two or more factors of proposed algorithm and have evaluated and compared with existing consensus algorithm. In future research we aim to implement RPoC in any blockchain network and then we will evaluate it in terms of different evaluation parameters such as performance, security, scalability.

Dinesh Kumar K, N. Duraimutharasan

Data security and sharing remains nuisance among many applications like business data, medical data, banking data etc. In this research, block chain technology is built with encryption algorithm for high level data security in cloud storage. Medical data security seems critical aspect due to sensitivity of patient’s information. Unauthorized access of medical data creates major issue to patients. This article proposed block chain with hybrid encryption technique for securing medical data stored in block chain model at cloud storage. New Two fish encryption model is implemented based on RSA Multiple Precision Arithmetic (MPA). MPA works by using library concept. The objective of using this methodology is to enhance security performance with less execution time. Patient data is processed by encryption algorithm and stored at blockchain infrastructure using encrypted key. Access permission allows user to read or write the medical data attached in block chain framework. The performance of traditional cryptographic techniques is very less in providing security infrastructure. Proposed blockchain based Two fish encryption technique provides high security in less encryption and decryption time.

Liam Scholte, Rui Wang, Kwok K. Chung, Michał Aibin

Condominiums and similar properties use a stratum to manage daily operations, and owners fund it through strata fees. While existing strata fee management systems may be able to handle such funds, such systems could be more inherently transparent. It is possible to leverage the digital ledger from blockchain networks and smart contracts to build a fully transparent strata fee management system. This paper proposes designing a strata fee management system based on a smart contract in the Ethereum network. Both strata corporations and homeowners can interact with the smart contract to execute common procedures such as paying strata fees and handling expenses. Using smart contracts for strata fee management, it is believed that the chance of fraud by strata corporations is lowered compared to other systems.

Maurantonio Caprolu, Elmahdi Bentafat, Spiridon Bakiras, Roberto Di Pietro

In this paper we propose UBIC, a novel blockchain-less architecture that preserves the main advantages of classic cryptocurrencies while avoiding their pitfalls. The proposed construction is general-that is, UBIC can be adopted at par with any other cryptocurrency-though UBIC also satisfies the requirements to support state-sponsored financial services, like Universal Basic Income and Central Bank Digital Currency. Indeed, UBIC stands for Universal Basic Income Coin, to highlight one of its most straightforward use-cases. One of the key features of UBIC is that every user participating in the protocol gets fair and equal access to the rewards, regardless of the available resources, e.g., computational power or financial stake. Moreover, by leveraging standard cryptographic techniques, such as homomorphic encryption and verifiable random functions, UBIC ensures full user privacy and trust in the network, while enjoying a highly scalable architecture. Our experimental results confirm the feasibility of the proposed architecture and demonstrate that UBIC is very efficient in terms of transaction verification time. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first blockchain-less cryptocurrency proposal. Other than being interesting on its own, and being particularly fit to support UBI and Central Bank Digital Currency, the architectural solutions and the technical choices discussed in this contribution have the potential to generate high impact and further research in the field.

Aggelos Kiayias, Cristopher Moore, Saad Quader, Alexander Russell

We describe and analyze a simple protocol for$n$parties that implements a randomness beacon: a sequence of high entropy values, continuously emitted at regular intervals, with sub-linear communication per value. The algorithm can tolerate a$(1-\epsilon)/2$fraction of the$n$players to be controlled by an adaptive adversary that may deviate arbitrarily from the protocol. The randomness mechanism relies on verifiable random functions (VRF), modeled as random functions, and effectively stretches an initial$\lambda$-bit seed to an arbitrarily long public sequence so that (i) with overwhelming probability in k-the security parameter-each beacon value has high min-entropy conditioned on the full history of the algorithm, and (ii) the total work and communication required per value is$O(k)$cryptographic operations. The protocol can be directly applied to provide a qualitative improvement in the security of several proof-of-stake blockchain algorithms, rendering them safe from “grinding” attacks.