Marco Scarpa, Mohammad Sadeghzadeh, Saeed Javanmardi, Bahareh Pahlevanzadeh · 5 authors
Blockchain provides secure and decentralized data storage. Normal blockchains permanently store data. Mutable blockchains allow users to change data, but this reduces tamper resistance. This paper tests both methods in PaB-PIF, a hybrid architecture for IoT-Fog networks. Our design uses an immutable mainchain in the cloud layer and mutable sidechains in the fog layer. We analyze throughput, latency, and tamper resistance using math models and simulations. Results show that blockchain greatly improves network security. Without blockchain, the network has zero tamper resistance. The mutable blockchain in the fog layer has a tamper resistance of 0.58. The immutable blockchain in the cloud layer reaches 0.99. However, this extra security increases latency and reduces throughput. The mutable blockchain has lower latency, so it is a good fit for the fog layer. The immutable blockchain provides maximum security, which is best for the cloud layer. This trade-off works well for IoT systems like the Internet of Vehicles, where data integrity and legal rules are essential. We also compare PaB-PIF with an IoT-Fog network that has no blockchain.
Kapil K. Jajulwar, Priya Dasarwar, Uma Yadav, Bhakti Prasad Thakre · 6 authors
Blockchain consensus mechanisms are important to ensure the safe validation of transactions. However, the limitations of high computational complexity, energy consumption, and mining latency restrict the scalability of blockchain in large-scale IP-based and wireless network environments. Current methods mainly rely on single optimization methods without jointly optimizing miner selection and hash computation, resulting in inferior performance under dynamic network conditions. To fill this gap, this study presents a new hybrid bioinspired optimization framework for efficient blockchain mining, integrating Genetic Algorithm (GA), Firefly optimization, and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) into a unified architecture to take advantage of their complementary strengths. The proposed method uses both historical and real-time performance metrics to determine the best mining nodes. The Firefly algorithm is used to optimize the selection of hash ranges to reduce CPU workload. PSO is used to select high-performance neighboring nodes for collaborative mining. The model is implemented using the NS-2 simulator and tested over a network of 1000 wireless nodes under different consensus protocols. The experimental results illustrate 4.3% decrease in computational complexity, 4% decrease in energy consumption, and 5% decrease in mining delay. The model further reduces mining complexity by up to 34.2% and reduces the energy utilization from 24.5% to 16.6%, demonstrating its effectiveness for scalable and energy-efficient blockchain deployment.
Blockchain interoperability remains a major challenge because heterogeneous blockchain networks cannot securely and efficiently exchange cross-chain data and transactions. Existing interoperability solutions often rely on central relays or trusted intermediaries, creating security vulnerabilities, limited fault tolerance, and a single point of failure. To address these limitations, this paper proposes VeriMesh, a decentralised mesh-based interoperability framework that combines trust-adaptive routing, multi-path relay verification, and Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP)-based validation for secure cross-chain communication. VeriMesh models relay nodes as a trust-weighted graph in which routing decisions dynamically adapt based on node behaviour and delivery reliability. Multi-path routing improves resilience against adversarial relay nodes, while transport-layer ZKP verification enables privacy-preserving validation without exposing sensitive information. The framework was implemented using Python relay nodes, Solidity smart contracts, and an Ethereum (Ganache) environment. Experimental evaluation using structured event-driven workloads demonstrated stable latency below 34 ms and delivery success rates above 85% up to 40% malicious node presence. Comparative evaluation against single-path and random multi-path relay baselines showed improved fault tolerance and routing reliability. The results demonstrate favourable scalability and robustness within the evaluated network range ( N = 10–30), while larger-scale evaluation remains future work. All experiments were conducted in a controlled local Ganache blockchain environment rather than on a public Ethereum testnet or mainnet, so the reported latency, gas, and delivery figures characterise protocol-layer behaviour under controlled conditions and should not yet be interpreted as representative of performance under public-network conditions such as real gas markets, block propagation delays, or network congestion.