Routing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are based on multi-hop communication in which the messages pass through multiple sensor nodes, and hence routing algorithms must rely on trust relationships between neighboring nodes. The open access nature of WSNs leads to the possibility of nodes becoming compromised and consequently being turned into malicious objects. One such attack on WSNs is the Sybil attack, in which an attacker can take control of a legitimate node or enter a malicious node into the network and create fake identities. Consequently, they can change the behavior of the WSN, such as its routing schema to cause loops or wrong directions to manipulate data and consume the energy of the network, or even target cluster heads. In this paper, we present a novel technique based on IOTA Tangle, a distributed ledger technology, for the detection and prevention of Sybil attacks by protecting routing data. A transaction history on IOTA is maintained for detecting malicious node injection, and IOTA currency is used as a reputation score to prevent malicious nodes and protect the routing table. Even if an attacker gains access to the network, all routing data can be tracked in IOTA Tangle that will alert the base station about this attack. The technique has been simulated and evaluated using a proof-of-concept prototype.
Many threshold systems require some kind of secret sharing during their set-up phase. There has been several recent work in doing secret sharing in a distributed manner through the use of Blockchain so that one does not have to rely on trusted third parties nor strong assumptions about the communication medium. This paper continues this line of work and presents a new protocol for distributed key generation (DKG). We develop a new technique that leverages the mainchain of a popular blockchain platform like Bitcoin, together with a mixing service and a group signature scheme, to provide anonymity and traceability; we connect this to a sidechain, pegged to the mainchain, that brings a better scalability. We implemented the technique on the joint platform Bitcoin/RootStock and use CoinJoin/CoinShuffle as the mixing service. The evaluation section shows a decrease by 99 % in the execution cost of our protocol compared to the same implementation on a smart-contract-friendly blockchain such as Ethereum.
Muath Obaidat, Joseph M. Brown, Abdullah Al Hayajneh
How to best secure communications between IoT devices remains a challenging research area. However, the heterodox nature of individual IoT devices and its limited capabilities demand a more centralized, authority-derivative nature of SSL/TLS for the IoT ecosystem. While a number of experimental protocols have been proposed, many of these techniques are either derivative of SSL/TLS on some layer, or lack either enough ubiquity to be widely applied to a live ecosystem, or verifiable results. This paper proposes a distributed system for securing end-to-end cross-device communications; Access Control Trust A Distributed Cross-Communication scheme (ACT-DCC) using a localized web of self-determinate nodes in a network. As opposed to distributed systems, which typically rely on blockchain or centrally signed certificates, the proposed scheme instead operates on an iterative, decentralized method, which combines pathfinding techniques alongside an algorithmic interpretation of hash-chaining and ledger-based storage. An initial network device carries an original key, which is naturally spread to additional connected devices on the same network in a distributed, web-like fashion. As more devices join the distributed network, the strength of the network grows exponentially through the volume of edge devices available in the web. The proposed scheme shows significant improvement as compared to other cross-device communication schemes, and encourages better-individualized decentralization, and less locally stored data.
Mohamed Ali, Ibrahim A. Abd El-Moghith, Mohamed N. El-Derini, Saad M. Darwish
Routing is a key function in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) since it facilitates data transfer to base stations. Routing attacks have the potential to destroy and degrade the functionality of WSNs. A trustworthy routing system is essential for routing security and WSN efficiency. Numerous methods have been implemented to build trust between routing nodes, including the use of cryptographic methods and centralized routing. Nonetheless, the majority of routing techniques are unworkable in reality due to the difficulty of properly identifying untrusted routing node activities. At the moment, there is no effective way to avoid malicious node attacks. As a consequence of these concerns, this paper proposes a trusted routing technique that combines blockchain infrastructure, deep neural networks, and Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) to improve the security and efficiency of WSN routing. To authenticate the transmission process, the suggested methodology makes use of a Proof of Authority (PoA) mechanism inside the blockchain network. The validation group required for proofing is chosen using a deep learning approach that prioritizes each node's characteristics. MDPs are then utilized to determine the suitable next-hop as a forwarding node capable of securely transmitting messages. According to testing data, our routing system outperforms current routing algorithms in a 50% malicious node routing scenario.
The blockchain-enabled internet of medical things (IoMT) is an emerging paradigm that could provide strong trust establishment and ensure the traceability of data sharing in the IoMT networks. One of the fundamental building blocks for Blockchain is Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA). Nevertheless, when processing a large number of transactions, the verification of multiple signatures will incur cumbersome overhead to the nodes in Blockchain. Although batch verification is able to provide a promising approach that verifies multiple signatures simultaneously and efficiently, the upper bound of batch size is limited to small-scale and the efficiency will drop rapidly as the batch size grows in the state-of-the-art ECDSA batch schemes. Meanwhile, most of the existing researches only focus on improving the efficiency of batch verification algorithms in various cryptosystem while ignoring the identification of invalid signatures, which could cause severe performance degradation when the batch verification fails. Motivated by these observations, this paper proposes an efficient and large-scale batch verification scheme with group testing technology based on ECDSA. The application of the presented protocols in Bitcoin and Hyperledger Fabric has been analyzed as supportive and effective. When the batch verification returns a false result, we utilize group testing technology to improve the efficiency of identifying invalid signatures. Comprehensive simulation results demonstrate that our protocol outperforms the related ECDSA batch verification schemes.
Jungsu Han, Jeongheon Kim, Aram Youn, Jinhee Lee ¡ 7 authors
With the advent of e-commerce and electronic payment systems, the use of paper currency is decreasing. Therefore, it is sufficiently predictable that most paper currencies will disappear and digital currencies will become the mainstream. This phenomenon is further accelerated by advances in blockchain technology and COVID-19. This is why the Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) has recently begun to attract attention. Currently, there are studies on CBDC with a blockchain-based distributed ledger. In this paper, we propose Cosmos blockchain based CBDC (Cos-CBDC) that enables communication between blockchains using Inter-Blockchain Communication (IBC) protocol to ensure interoperability. We not only analyze the requirements of Cos-CBDC but also design and implement it using Cosmos-SDK. Furthermore, we propose a Group Key Management system in Cos-CBDC. It can give different user privileges, and privacy-preserving is possible in the key generation process.
Vankamamidi S. Naresh, V. V. L. Divakar Allavarpu, Sivaranjani Reddi, Pilla Sita Rama Murty ¡ 6 authors
Summary Group key management with privacy preserving and trust still remains a precarious and stimulating issue for securing multicast communications in an energy embarrassed large wireless adâhoc networks (WANETs). To address this, few researchers with the adaption of blockchain technology and practical usage of a privacyâpreserving smart contract as group controller made these group key agreements adaptable to WANET. However, proportionate to the increase in the size of the group, the processing load on the smart contract is also increasing, which made the capability of the smart contract could not work beyond a certain group size. Contemporary blockchain schemes suffer from various inherent shortcomings in their latency, scalability, and processing throughput. So, in this direction, we adopted blockchain sharding smart contractâcentric processing for making the key agreement adaptable to large WANETs. In this technique, we divide the large network into r sharded subnetworks with G 1 , G 2 , G 3 , âŚ, G r as smart contract instances generated by group controller G , which acts as subgroup controllers to their respective shards using blockchain sharding technique. This protocol is shown secure under the assumptions elliptic curve decision DiffieâHellman and groupâelliptic curve DiffieâHellman. The performance analysis demonstrates that the proposed protocol is highly proficient than examined protocols for secure communication in large WANETs.
Abstract This paper presents HashWires, a hash-based range proof protocol that is applicable in settings for which there is a trusted third party (typically a credential issuer) that can generate commitments. We refer to these as âcredential-basedâ range proofs (CBRPs). HashWires improves upon hashchain solutions that are typically restricted to micro-payments for small interval ranges, achieving an exponential speedup in proof generation and verification time. Under reasonable assumptions and performance considerations, a Hash-Wires proof can be as small as 305 bytes for 64-bit integers. Although CBRPs are not zero-knowledge and are inherently less flexible than general zero-knowledge range proofs, we provide a number of applications in which a credential issuer can leverage HashWires to provide range proofs for private values, without having to rely on heavyweight cryptographic tools and assumptions.
Spectrum is a kind of non-reproducible scarce strategic resource. A secure wideband spectrum sensing technology provides the possibility for the next generation of ultra-dense, ultra-large-capacity communications to realize the shared utilization of spectrum resources. However, for the open collaborative sensing in cognitive radio networks, the collusion attacks of malicious users greatly affect the accuracy of the sensing results and the security of the entire network. To address this problem, this paper proposes a weighted fusion decision algorithm by using the blockchain technology. The proposed algorithm divides the single-node reputation into active reputation and passive reputation. Through the proposed token threshold concept, the active reputation is set to increase the malicious cost of the node; the passive reputation of the node is determined according to the historical data and recent performance of the blockchain. The final node weight is obtained by considering both kinds of reputation. The proposed scheme can build a trust-free platform for the cognitive radio collaborative networks. Compared with the traditional equal-gain combination algorithm and the centralized sensing algorithm based on the beta reputation system, the simulation results show that the proposed algorithm can obtain reliable sensing results with a lower number of assistants and sampling rate, and can effectively resist malicious usersâ collusion attacks. Therefore, the security and the accuracy of cooperative spectrum sensing can be significantly improved in cognitive radio networks.
ZK (zero knowledge) proof of knowledge of discrete logarithm (and sometimes extended to ZK proof of equality of discrete logarithms) in cyclic groups with unknown orders are widely employed in various cryptographic applications. To the best of our knowledge the present implementations of these two proofs have some drawbacks. Firstly, they can only achieve statistical ZK, which is not only weaker in theory than perfect ZK but also difficult to formally prove in practice. Moreover, the drawback is not limited to theoretic problems like provability but sometimes deteriorate efficiency of ZK proof to an intolerable level as we will show in a case study. The first perfect ZK argument of the proof is proposed in this paper, which is formally provable and can always guarantee acceptable efficiency. It is especially suitable for applications with high requirement on privacy and complex secure protocols requiring concise and formal proof of ZK privacy.
Abstract The wireless sensor network (WSN) with fluctuating environs might be susceptible to diverse types of malicious cyberâattacks, and they are mostly dependent on the authentication and encryption algorithm to astound this challenge. Most predominant routing schemes in literature are fall backs in characterizing the malicious nodes on networks due to the real time variation of routing information. Therefore, a reliable and trustworthy interâcorrelated routing scheme based on Block chain, Metaâheuristic, and Deep Learning Algorithms are presented in this paper. The disseminated routing info in the WSN is handled by Block chain strategy, in which the optimal routing is accomplished with the help of Salp Swarm Optimization algorithm. The routing info variations between the nodes are envisaged and the optimal routing decisions are done by using the Deep Convolutional Neural network algorithm. The proposed routing scheme is implemented in NS2 and its performance is evaluated based on latency, energy consumption, and throughput metrics are analyzed. The efficiency of the method is improved as 97% and the evaluation is done for the malicious attacks, latency, and the delay. The comparison is made for the existing methods as particle swarm optimization, Markov decision process, security disjoint routingâbased verified message, trustedâclusterâbased routing, and reinforcement learningâbased neural network (RLNN) with the proposed method for the delay ratio.
Jiaxing Li, Jigang Wu, Long Chen, Jin Li ¡ 5 authors
Mobile edge computing (MEC) is a promising edge technology to provide high bandwidth and low latency shared services and resources to mobile users. However, the MEC infrastructure raises major security concerns when the shared resources involve sensitive and private data of users. This paper proposes a novel blockchain-based key management scheme for MEC that is essential for ensuring secure group communication among the mobile devices as they dynamically move from one subnetwork to another. In the proposed scheme, when a mobile device joins a subnetwork, it first generates lightweight key pairs for digital signature and communication, and broadcasts its public key to neighbouring peer users in the subnetwork blockchain. The blockchain miner in the subnetwork packs all the public key of mobile devices into a block that will be sent to other users in the subnetwork. This enables the mobile device to communicate with its peers in the subnetwork by encrypting the data with the public key stored in the blockchain. When the mobile device moves to another subnetwork in the tree network, all the mobile devices of the new subnetwork can quickly verify its identity by checking its record in the local or higher hierarchy subnetwork blockchain. Furthermore, when the mobile device leaves the subnetwork, it does not need to do anything and its records will remain in the blockchain which is an append-only database. Theoretical security analysis shows that the proposed scheme can defend against the 51 percent attack and malicious entities in the blockchain network utilizing Proof-of-Work consensus mechanism. Moreover, the backward and forward secrecy is also preserved. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed scheme outperforms two baselines in terms of computation, communication and storage.
Known as a distributed ledger technology (DLT), blockchain has attracted much attention due to its properties such as decentralization, security, immutability and transparency, and its potential of servicing as an infrastructure for various applications. Blockchain can empower wireless networks with identity management, data integrity, access control, and high-level security. However, previous studies on blockchain-enabled wireless networks mostly focus on proposing architectures or building systems with popular blockchain protocols. Nevertheless, such existing protocols have obvious shortcomings when adopted in wireless networks where nodes may have limited physical resources, may fall short of well-established reliable channels, or may suffer from variable bandwidths impacted by environments or jamming attacks. In this paper, we propose a novel consensus protocol named Proof-of-Channel (PoC) leveraging the natural properties of wireless communications, and develop a permissioned BLOWN protocol (BLOckchain protocol for Wireless Networks) for single-hop wireless networks under an adversarial SINR model. We formalize BLOWN with the universal composition framework and prove its security properties, namely persistence and liveness, as well as its strengths in countering against adversarial jamming, double-spending, and Sybil attacks, which are also demonstrated by extensive simulation studies.
Verification of the certificate revocation status is a crucial process for Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) system reliability. Failing to detect a revoked certificate may lead to catastrophic system compromises. Existing verification systems use slow and centralized approaches like Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs) and Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP). These systems are known to cause verification failures (soft fails) because of system and network delays. Additionally, the availability of these systems are a major concern. Recent developments in distributed ledger (blockchain) technologies enable this information to be reliably published on the Internet, in a distributed manner. However in a distributed system, synchronizing large amounts of data among the nodes is an expensive task. One way to combat this issue is to use cryptographic accumulators, a tool that can be used to reduce data size; when only membership test statuses are necessary from a set of data. In this study, we focus on the reliable and effective distribution of certificate revocation information. We present a design of an asymmetric cryptographic accumulator based effective certificate revocation system. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using asymmetric cryptographic accumulators to distribute certificate revocation data via blockchain.
Routing is a critical process in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) since it is responsible for data transmission to base stations. Routing attacks are capable of completely destroying and degrading the function of WSNs. A trustworthy routing system is critical for ensuring routing security and WSN efficiency. Numerous studies have been conducted to increase trust between routing nodes, including cryptographic techniques, and centralized routing decisions. Nonetheless, the majority of routing methods are impractical in practice, since it is difficult to identify untrusted activities of routing nodes effectively. Meanwhile, there is no efficient method of preventing malicious node attacks. As a result of these issues, this article offers a trusted routing method that combines deep blockchain and Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) in order to enhance the routing security and efficiency of WSNs. To authenticate the process of transmitting the node, the proposed approach utilizes a Proof of Authority (PoA) method inside the blockchain network. The validation group necessary for proofing is selected using a deep learning methodology that focuses on the properties of each node. MDPs are then used to choose the appropriate next hop as a forwarding node capable of transferring messages simply and securely. According to testing data, our routing system still performs well in a 50% malicious node routing environment when compared to existing routing algorithms.
Lakshmana Kumar Ramasamy, Firoz Khan, Agbotiname Lucky Imoize, Joshua O. Ogbebor ¡ 6 authors
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are broadly applied for various applications in tracking and surveillance due to their ease of use and other distinctive characteristics compelled by real-time cooperation among the sensor nodes. In WSNs, security is becoming a critical issue, as the techniques for malicious node detection adopt a one-time, centralized decision-making approach. With this paradigm, errors are difficult to avoid, and reproducibility and traceability are challenging. Hence, malicious node discovery technologies in conventional WSNs cannot assure traceability and fairness of the detection method. Herein, this paper discusses an in-depth survey of a blockchain-based approach for malicious node detection, an exhaustive examination of the integration of blockchain techniques with WSNs (BWSN), and insights into this novel concept. This survey discusses the architecture, sector-wise applications, and uses of BWSN. Moreover, this survey describes malicious node detection based on BWSN in two parts: 1) the BWSN architecture for detecting the malicious nodes and 2) the smart contract aspects in malicious node detection. Next, this survey explains the contributions of blockchain for WSN data management, which involves online information aggregation and may include auditing, event logs, and storage for information analysis and offline query processing. This survey first presents the conventional WSN solutions then the blockchain-based WSN solutions for data management. Additionally, this survey discusses the contributions of blockchain for WSN security management. It first examines the centralized WSN models for security problems, followed by a discussion of the blockchain-based WSN solutions for security management, such as offering access control, preserving information integrity, guaranteeing privacy, and ensuring WSNsâ node longevity.