Blockchain, a distributed ledger technology (DLT), refers to a list of records with consecutive time stamps. This decentralization technology has become a powerful model to establish trust among trustless entities, in a verifiable manner. Motivated by the recent advancement of multi-access edge computing (MEC) and artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain-enabled edge intelligence has become an emerging technology for the Internet of Things (IoT). We review how blockchain-enabled edge intelligence works in the IoT domain, identify the emerging trends, and suggest open issues for further research. To be specific: (1) we first offer some basic knowledge of DLT, MEC, and AI; (2) a comprehensive review of current peer-reviewed literature is given to identify emerging trends in this research area; and (3) we discuss some open issues and research gaps for future investigations. We expect that blockchain-enabled edge intelligence will become an important enabler of future IoT, providing trust and intelligence to satisfy the sophisticated needs of industries and society.
Bhaskara S. Egala, Ashok Kumar Pradhan, Venkataramana Badarla, Saraju P. Mohanty
The rapid developments in the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) help the smart healthcare systems to deliver more sophisticated real-time services. At the same time, IoMT also raises many privacy and security issues. Also, the heterogeneous nature of these devices makes it challenging to develop a common security standard solution. Furthermore, the existing cloud-centric IoMT healthcare systems depend on cloud computing for electrical health records (EHR) and medical services, which is not suggestible for a decentralized IoMT healthcare systems. In this article, we have proposed a blockchain-based novel architecture that provides a decentralized EHR and smart-contract-based service automation without compromising with the system security and privacy. In this architecture, we have introduced the hybrid computing paradigm with the blockchain-based distributed data storage system to overcome blockchain-based cloud-centric IoMT healthcare system drawbacks, such as high latency, high storage cost, and single point of failure. A decentralized selective ring-based access control mechanism is introduced along with device authentication and patient records anonymity algorithms to improve the proposed system's security capabilities. We have evaluated the latency and cost effectiveness of data sharing on the proposed system using Blockchain. Also, we conducted a logical system analysis, which reveals that our architecture-based security and privacy mechanisms are capable of fulfilling the requirements of decentralized IoMT smart healthcare systems. Experimental analysis proves that our fortified-chain-based H-CPS needs insignificant storage and has a response time in the order of milliseconds as compared to traditional centralized H-CPS while providing decentralized automated access control, security, and privacy.
Electronic Medical Records (EMR) and other medical data contain important and sensitive privacy information of patients, which provide important basis and reference for their doctors to diagnose and treat them. With the continuous development of data sharing, big data applications and other technologies, new requirements are proposed for the storage of medical privacy data. At present, medical data have the characteristics of obstructed sharing and exchange, difficult data tracing and data sensitivity, which increases the cost and difficulty of each diagnosis. Moreover, patients lack the right to know and control their own medical data, which is easy to cause data fraud or data leakage. As a decentralized, tamper proof and traceable distributed ledger system, blockchain brings new solutions to these problems. This paper designs a medical data fusion and distributed privacy management system based on the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain development platform and InterPlanetary File System. It can not only solve the problem of mutual distrust in the traditional system, but also realize the safe data storage and the safe sharing of medical record data between medical organizations which is a beneficial attempt to overcome the disadvantages of traditional hospital data separation. At the same time, according to the requirements of different levels and types of medical users or groups for data security and personal privacy protection, the access control technology of users is studied to ensure personal privacy data.
Abstract In healthcare systems IoT device has to give sensitive and private information about the patients, it should be maintained extremely confidential and personal. Most of the IoT-healthcare devices based on existing centralized server data management technology don’t give any guarantee of authenticity and security. Blockchain is a public tamperproof ledger that is decentralized network system in which transaction of data is distributed among the nodes. Blockchain with its consensus algorithm can solve problems by providing decentralized computation for IoT data. The combination of IoT and blockchain technologies with consensus algorithm can become a best choice of designing the secured distributed e-healthcare systems. This paper reviews the blockchain technology and the basic principle and characteristics of a consensus algorithm for IoT- based e- healthcare system.
Apoorv Jain, Arun Kumar Tripathi, N. Chandra, P. Chinnasamy
In today's world, data is one of the most important assets than any other. Every user wants to secure their data from the outer world. Blockchain is the prominent technology that can provide the security and loyalty of data. Initially, blockchain has been used for the cryptocurrency and all the data were available on the public distributed ledger. But now a days, private blockchain is widely used within the organizations for data security. Blockchain engenders decentralized systems in which data can be send and receive securely and efficiently over the network. It means there is everything is hidden from the outer world; only authorized users have the authority to read and write the data on the network. World's topmost industries; like Walmart, IBM, Google, etc. are adopting the blockchain technology to build the Decentralized Applications (DApps). Decentralized Applications are the smart systems that are executed on a distributed computer network. Blockchain enables one of the most secure applications called Smart Contract. Smart Contracts are the computerized and secured distributed ledgers that enable secure, transparent, and tamper-proof transactions. Smart contracts create and verify the data with the help of hashing. It is a mathematical procedure that uses the most powerful algorithm cryptographic Hash Algorithm i.e. SHA-256. It engenders 256-bit signature for the input text. Ethereum Blockchain Platform is a widely used platform to build the DApps. This platform is a public network platform, which is open to all and anyone can participate in this network to send and receives the transactions. Blockchain Technology is enabled in every sector like marketing, business, education and supply-chain, etc. This paper carries out the study Ethereum Blockchain Platform in Education System. We have developed an application for the Online-Examination System using Blockchain Ethereum Platform with features of Smart Contracts that enables server runtime environment NodeJS and MongoDB database system. Blockchain-based system is truly more secure than all the Cloud-based systems. We have also analysed that how blockchain based online examination is more trustworthy as compare the other systems.
Blockchain is a promising emerging technology that is envisioned to play a key role in establishing secure and reliable Internet-of-Things (IoT) ecosystems without the involvement of any third party. Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain system that can yield high throughput and low consensus delay, has shown its capability in enhancing security and privacy protection for delay-sensitive IoT services. The literature, however, has not considered the conflicting transaction problem which may substantially limit the system performance and degrade QoS for the end users. In this article, we propose CATP-Fabric, a new blockchain system to address the conflicting transaction problem by reducing the number of potentially conflicting transactions with less overhead. First, the transactions within a block are divided into different groups to facilitate parallel transaction processing. Then, CATP-Fabric filters stale transactions and prioritizes the read-only transactions in each group to eliminate unnecessary overhead. Finally, we formulate the selection of aborting transactions in CATP-Fabric as a binary integer-programming problem and develop a low-complexity optimization algorithm to minimize the number of aborted transactions. Illustrative results show that our proposed CATP-Fabric blockchain system achieves high throughput of successful transactions while maintaining a lower aborting transaction rate compared to the benchmark blockchain systems.
In this paper, we reviewed the challenges and drawbacks of current licensing process such as lack of transparency, accountability, difficulties to track the provenance of information and assert traceability. As a solution to the issues we proposed a novel framework based on blockchain. We leveraged the key features of blockchain and smart contract to develop a better driving license management and drivers reputation system. We automated several tedious steps for a more efficient system. We explained our proposed framework, compared performance with existing traditional and digital systems before concluding with our future work.
In accordance with on-going progress related to network advances, 5G portrays the up and coming age of versatile systems that further guarantees astounding execution enhancements similar to the production of another worth chain. Corresponding with 5G, the Internet of Things (IoT) has additionally developed as the latest worldview for the combination of enormous correspondence proficient heterogeneous smart devices. 5G is conceived to expand the IoT’s extension and fields of pertinence. However, because current versatile systems and increasingly broad IoT frameworks depend on combined models, in this manner, it is foreseen that they will confront gigantic difficulties obtaining the prerequisites of future 5G-empowered IoT use cases. To address these unavoidable issues, blockchain stands apart as a promising innovation. Some of the contributions of blockchain innovation are its unchanging nature, non-revocation, confirmation of provenance, integrity and protection. Blockchain’s blend with 5G IoT still requires fundamental bits of knowledge concerning solid application spaces, adaptability, protection issues, execution and potential budgetary advantages. The chapter aims to expound and underscore the key parts of the utilization of blockchain for 5G and the IoT. To alleviate the previously mentioned issues, in this chapter, we present an inside and out review of the best in class proposition.
Blockchain technologies are drawing attention after the success of cryptocurrency. Due to the inherent features, such as decentralization, transparency, security, immutability, and integrity, they have already become the prime choice of researchers and scientists. Blockchain is among the most disruptive innovations which have the potential to reshape the behavior of many businesses and industries. Blockchain applications are based on DLT in which public ledger can be accessed by everyone by eliminating the need of third party. Although the power of AI allows the intelligence and decision-making powers of machines in the same way as humans, it relies on a unified model for training and validating datasets. However, the unified nature of AI poses many threats to data privacy and data tempering. Thus, the unique features of blockchain technology makes its application attractive in almost every field including financial services, healthcare, IoT, and many more. This chapter presents a comprehensive overview on blockchain and its integration with AI to explore numerous capabilities.
The Internet-of-Healthcare Systems is a highly distributed special emulation of the Internet of Things technology. Patient medical data sourced from the participating hospitals are integrated with a decentralized storage system using blockchain technology to provide the highest level of storage and access security possible, overcoming the security and data administration problems that may occur at the local hospital level where the patient data is stored within the hospital’s central server, especially if that data is subjected to external threats. The Internet-of-Healthcare Systems, currently implemented in over 350 hospitals, utilises software agents, accessed using the Message Queueing Telemetry Transport protocol, which efficiently handles potentially thousands of participating local systems without loss of network timeliness. Also, the system works with the wide variety of health information systems used in the participating hospitals. This makes the system a worthwhile candidate for a nationwide integrated health records system, and is an exemplar for many different types of secure networks that could be generically called an Internet of Special Things; a network of software agents programmed for a special purpose. Mobile device apps enable secure direct access to patient data in a central blockchain with download capability to a mobile device, under strict and fully managed access control using Amazon Web Services, with permissions controlled by the Key Management System. Feedback from participating medical staff indicates a high level of satisfaction with all aspects of the system: ease of use, ease of installation, maintenance and update, and, importantly, the security of the system.
The Internet of Things (IoT) adoption grows significantly and is successful in many different domains. Nevertheless, the ever-growing demand for more connected devices pushes the requirement for scalable IoT architectures capable of maintaining the security and privacy of collected data. The latter is a particularly critical aspect when considering sensitive data, e.g., medical records. One solution to address this challenge is to modify the centralized back-end model to one based on a Blockchain, changing the way IoT data is stored and shared by providing a decentralized peer-to-peer network. This technology enables naming and tracking for connected devices, and in the case of this article, features a high availability of Personal Health Records, yet protecting patients’ privacy through the use of cryptography. Furthermore, the addition of Fog computing mechanisms helps to achieve real-time data processing, supports precision medicine, and avoids single points of failure. As a result, devices have a local and more resilient ecosystem for operation. In this context, this work proposes an architecture model named FogChain, which combines the technologies Blockchain, Fog computing, and the IoT for the healthcare domain. Our main contribution is the FogChain model itself, and its concept of overcoming IoT constraints by employing a differential approach, adding an intermediary Fog layer near to the edge to improve their capabilities and resources. Experiments demonstrate that FogChain can achieve a 62.6% faster response time when compared to Cloud-like Blockchain infrastructures. The results obtained from the evaluation endorses the capacity of our model in achieving its goals while retaining application performance.
Ziaur Rahman, Xun Yi, Ibrahim Khalil, Andrei Kelarev
The world has been experiencing a mind-blowing expansion of blockchain technology since it was first introduced as an emerging means of cryptocurrency called bitcoin. Currently, it has been regarded as a pervasive frame of reference across almost all research domains, ranging from virtual cash to agriculture or even supply-chain to the Internet of Things. The ability to have a self-administering register with legitimate immutability makes blockchain appealing for the Internet of Things (IoT). As billions of IoT devices are now online in distributed fashion, the huge challenges and questions require to addressed in pursuit of urgently needed solutions. The present paper has been motivated by the aim of facilitating such efforts. The contribution of this work is to figure out those trade-offs the IoT ecosystem usually encounters because of the wrong choice of blockchain technology. Unlike a survey or review, the critical findings of this paper target sorting out specific security challenges of blockchain-IoT Infrastructure. The contribution includes how to direct developers and researchers in this domain to pick out the unblemished combinations of Blockchain enabled IoT applications. In addition, the paper promises to bring a deep insight on Ethereum, Hyperledger blockchain and IOTA technology to show their limitations and prospects in terms of performance and scalability.
The ever-growing size of the Bitcoin UTXO state is a factor preventing nodes with limited storage capacity from validating transactions. Cryptographic accumulators, such as Merkle trees, offer a viable solution to the problem. Full nodes create a Merkle tree from the UTXO set, while stateless nodes merely store the root of the Merkle tree. When provided with a proof, stateless nodes can verify that a transaction’s inputs belong to the UTXO set. In this work, we present a systematic study of Merkle tree based accumulators, with a focus on factors that reduce the proof size. Based on the observation that UTXOs typically have a short lifetime, we propose that recent UTXOs be co-located in the tree. When proofs for different transactions are batched, such a design reduces the per-transaction proof size. We provide details of our implementation of this idea, describing certain optimizations that further reduce the proof size in practice. On Bitcoin data before August 2019, we show that our design achieves a 4.6x reduction in proof size vis-a-vis UTREEXO [10], which is a different Merkle-tree based system designed to support stateless nodes.
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Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
Cryptography and Data Security
Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Clement Nartey, Eric Tutu Tchao, James Dzisi Gadze, Eliel Keelson · 7 authors
Digitization and automation have engulfed every scope and sphere of life. Internet of Things (IoT) has been the main enabler of the revolution. There still exist challenges in IoT that need to be addressed such as the limited address space for the increasing number of devices when using IPv4 and IPv6 as well as key security issues such as vulnerable access control mechanisms. Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that has immense benefits such as enhanced security and traceability. Thus, blockchain can serve as a good foundation for applications based on transaction and interactions. IoT implementations and applications are by definition distributed. This means blockchain can help to solve most of the security vulnerabilities and traceability concerns of IoTs by using blockchain as a ledger that can keep track of how devices interact, in which state they are and how they transact with other IoT devices. IoT applications have been mainly implemented with technologies such as cloud and fog computing, and AI to help address some of its key challenges. The key implementation challenges and technical choices to consider in making a successful blockchain IoT (BIoT) project are clearly outlined in this paper. The security and privacy aspect of BIoT applications are also analyzed, and several relevant solutions to improve the scalability and throughput of such applications are proposed. The paper also reviews integration schemes and monitoring frameworks for BIoT applications. A hybrid blockchain IoT integration architecture that makes use of containerization is proposed.
Darrell Yonathan, Diyanatul Husna, F. Astha Ekadiyanto, I Ketut Eddy Purnama · 10 authors
This paper discusses the implementation of smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain system for telemedicine data storage. Telemedicine is one of the currently developing digital technologies in the health and medical sectors. Telemedicine can be more efficient when seeking treatment because patients do not need to see a doctor face to face. When using blockchain technology, the stored data becomes more transparent for each node in the blockchain network but has verification on every transaction which takes time and gas costs. However, telemedicine has several risks and problems, one of which is long data storage process time because there must be a verification process first to ensure data security. Another problem faced is the issue of the gas fee of the blockchain telemedicine system which is billed in every data storage transaction. In this study, a blockchain system was introduced for managing and securing databases on telemedicine. The implementation of this blockchain system was carried out on a website page that can add data to and retrieve data from the blockchain system. The results of this study showed that blockchain was successfully implemented to store telemedicine data with Ethereum. The analysis in this paper refers to the set and gets functions. The set function is used to send data to the blockchain, and the get function is used to retrieve data from the blockchain. From testing, the Get function has a much faster execution time than the Set function because the Get function does not require verification to retrieve its data. In the iterations carried out—namely 1, 10, and 100—the longest time on average was at 100 iterations when compared to the other iterations. In the tests carried out, the more characters that were stored, the more gas costs must be paid. In the tests, the percentage increase in costs was 0.34% per character.
M Swetha, S. K. Pushpa, M S Muneshwara, T N Manjunath
Blockchain technology is known for its application in fields such as finance, banking and cryptocurrency and these are the fields that have very sensitive data that has to be stored and transferred securely. An important advantage of blockchain based system is that it is decentralized. The data stored is managed by a P2P network which eliminates several disadvantages that occur in centralized systems. Blockchain uses ad-hoc message passing. One such risk in a blockchain is that it avoids the central point of failure. Due to this advantage blockchain can be used in Healthcare systems. There is also step increase in the number of IoT devices which in turn is a threat to the patient’s medical data. This paper is aimed at giving an overview of the use of blockchain in healthcare systems. Blockchain can be used not only to secure patient information in their EHR’s but also allows them to give permission to entities as and when deemed necessary. We can use Hyperledger here in order to provide data access control. In order to take advantage of its decentralized nature, the EHR can be distributed among the various entities of the network such as doctor, medical practitioner, labs and so on.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has great potential in diverse real-time mission-critical applications and one such application is telesurgery or robotic surgery. However, some issues like security, throughput, reliability, trust, and transparency are still challenging in an AI-enabled telesurgery system. Motivated from these challenges, in this paper, we propose a blockchain and AI-empowered telesurgery system towards 6G calledBATS, which is a self-manageable, secure, transparent, and trustable system with massive Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (mURLLC).BATSuses AI algorithms such as eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) to classify the disease with their criticality score ranging from 0 to 1. Moreover,BATSuses UAVs to transport light-weight healthcare items such as medicines and surgical tools in an emergent situation (during surgical procedures) to avoid road-traffic congestions. Results show that the proposedBATSscheme achieves better prediction accuracy, high throughput when the number of users increases, extremely low packet loss ratio, low storage cost, high mining profit, and low bandwidth consumption by the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) compared to the traditionalHaBiTsandAaYusHschemes.